Abstract
We analyzed all U.S. Supreme Court cases as of June 6, 2020 where private complainants filed either a §1983 action or Bivens action against police officers who claimed the defense of qualified immunity (N = 29). Empirical analysis of qualified immunity claims involving excessive force, unlawful warrant executions, and unlawful warrantless searches and arrests reveal the Court’s growing trend of ruling in favor of police officers. In 10 out of 13 cases involving excessive force claims, three out of five unlawful warrant execution claims, and nine out of 10 unlawful warrantless searches and arrests claims, the Court granted police officers’ qualified immunity. The requirement for private complainants to identify a case where the Court ruled against the officer in similar circumstances makes it extremely difficult to defeat the defense of qualified immunity. The Court should reconsider its standard of proving “clearly established rights,” an element of qualified immunity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arango, T., Furber, M., & Bogel-Burroughs, N. (2020, July 15). Footage of police body cameras offers devastating account of Floyd killing. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/15/us/george-floyd-video-killing.html
Baude, W. (2018). Is qualified immunity unlawful? California Law Review, 106, 45–90.
Berman, M., Sullivan, J., Tate, J., & Jenkins, J. (2020, June 8). Protests spread over police shootings. Police promised reform. Every year, they still shoot and kill nearly 1,000 people. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/protests-spread-over-police-shootings-police-promised-reforms-every-year-they-still-shoot-nearly-1000-people/2020/06/08/5c204f0c-a67c-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html
Blum, K., Chemerinsky, E., & Schwartz, M. (2013). Qualified immunity developments: Not much hope left for plaintiffs. Touro Law Review, 29, 633–658.
Buchanan, L., Bui, B., & Patel, J.K. (2020, July 3). Black lives matter may be the largest movement in U.S. history. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html
Burch, A.D.S., & Eligon, J. (2020, May 26). Bystander videos of George Floyd and others are policing the police. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/26/us/george-floyd-minneapolis-police.html
Coleman, J., Hershovitz, S., & Mendlow, G. (2015, Winter). Theories of the common law of torts. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.). Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/tort-theories/
Cover, A. (2016). Reconstructing the right against excessive force. Florida Law Review, 68, 1773–1837.
Duckett, T. (2016). Unreasonably immune: Rethinking qualified immunity in fourth amendment excessive force claims. American Criminal Law Review, 53(2), 409–435.
Editorial. (2020, June 3). Justice for Mr. Floyd. The Timberjay (St. Louis County Minnesota). Retrieved from http://timberjay.com/stories/justice-for-mr-floyd,16399
Ekins, E. (2020, July 16). Poll: 63% of Americans favor eliminating qualified immunity for police. Cato Institute Summer 2020 National Survey. Retrieved from https://www.cato.org/publications/survey-reports/poll-63-americans-favor-eliminating-qualified-immunity-police#introduction
Eskridge, W. (1988). Overruling statutory precedents. The Georgetown Law Journal, 76, 1361–1439.
Finn, T. (2018). Qualified immunity formalism: “Clearly established law” and the right to record police activity. Columbia Law Review, 119, 445–486.
Fisher, J. (2020). Shoot at me once: Shame on you! Shoot at me twice: Qualified immunity. Qualified immunity applies where police target innocent bystanders. Mercer Law Review, 71, 1171–1190.
French, K.B., Crowe, K., & Wedell, K. (2020, May 28). Minneapolis police at center of George Floyd’s death had a history of complaints. USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2020/05/28/george-floyd-video-sparks-outrage-police-records-detail-even-more/5275079002/
Fuchs, H. (2020, June 23). Qualified immunity protection for police emerges as flash point amid protests. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/23/us/politics/qualified-immunity.html
Gross, J. (2016). Judge, jury, and executioner: The excessive use of deadly force by police officers. Texas Journal on Civil Liberties & Civil Rights, 21, 155–181.
Harvard Law Review Association. (2020). Recent cases. Harvard Law Review, 133, 1750–1757.
Hassel, D. (2009). Excessive reasonableness. Indiana Law Review, 43, 117–142.
Hill, E., Tiefenthäler, A., Triebert, C., Jordan, D., Willis, H., & Stein, R. (2020, May 31). How George Floyd was killed in police custody. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html
Jeffries Jr., J. (2013). The liability rule for constitutional torts. Virginia Law Review, 99, 207–270.
Jeffries Jr., J. (2010). Dunwody distinguished lecture in law, what’s wrong with qualified immunity? Florida Law Review, 62, 851–870.
Kinports, K. (2016). The supreme court’s quiet expansion of qualified immunity. Minnesota Law Review Headnotes, 100, 62–78.
Kobler, A. (1975). Police homicide in a democracy. Journal of Social Issue, 31(1), 163–184.
Lopez, G. (2020, December 14). Police officers are prosecuted for murder in less than 2 percent of fatal shootings. Vox. https://www.vox.com/21497089/police-prosecutions-black-lives-matter-breonna-taylor-george-floyd
Meltzer, R. (2014). Qualified immunity and constitutional-norm generation in the post-saucier era: “Clearly establishing” the law through civilian oversight of police. Texas Law Review, 92(5), 1277–1315.
Michelman, S. (2018). The branch best qualified to abolish immunity. Notre Dame Law Review, 93, 1999–2020.
Montemayor, S. (2020, June 1). Minnesota AG Keith Ellison to take over case in Floyd killing. Star Tribune (Minneapolis, MN). Retrieved from https://www.startribune.com/ag-keith-ellison-to-take-over-case-in-floyd-killing/570911922/
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. (1968). The Kerner report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Nemeth, M. (2019). How was that reasonable? The misguided development of qualified immunity and excessive force by law enforcement officers. Boston College Law Review, 60, 989–1022.
Nielson, A., & Walker, C. (2016). Strategic immunity. Emory Law Journal, 66, 55–122.
Nielson, A., & Walker, C. (2015). The new qualified immunity. Southern California Law Review, 89, 1–66.
New York Times. (2020, May 27). What we know about the death of George Floyd in Minneapolis. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/27/us/george-floyd-minneapolis-death.html#link-6f02b463
Nolasco, C., del Carmen, R. V., Steinmetz, K., Vaughn, M. S., & Spaic, A. (2015). Building legal competency: Foundations for a more effective criminology and criminal justice discipline. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 26(3), 233–252.
Nolasco, C., & Vaughn, M. S. (2010). Judicial scrutiny of gender-based employment practices in criminal justice agencies. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 106–119.
Nolasco, C., Vaughn, M. S., & del Carmen, R. (2010). Toward a new methodology for legal research in criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21, 1–23.
Pelura, G. (2020). Section 1983 & qualified immunity: Qualifying the death of due process and America's most vulnerable classes since 1871. Can it be fixed? William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, & Social Justice, 26(3), 749–782.
Pfander, J. (2017). Constitutional torts and the war on terror. Oxford University Press.
Reinhardt, S. (2015). The demise of habeas corpus and the rise of qualified immunity: The court's ever increasing limitations on the development and enforcement of constitutional rights and some particularly unfortunate consequences. Michigan Law Review, 113, 1219–1254.
Schwartz, J. (2020). Qualified immunity's selection effects. Northwestern University Law Review, 114, 1101–1178.
Schwartz, J. (2018). The case against qualified immunity. Notre Dame Law Review, 93, 1797–1851.
Schwartz, J. (2017). How qualified immunity fails. Yale Law J, 127, 2–76.
Schwartz, J. (2014). Police indemnification. New York University Law Review, 89, 885–1005.
Schweikert, J. (2020a, June 15). The supreme court’s dereliction of duty on qualified immunity. Cato Institute. Retrieved from https://www.cato.org/blog/supreme-courts-dereliction-duty-qualified-immunity#:~:text=By%20holding%20police%20officers%20to,their%20jobs%20safely%20and%20effectively.
Schweikert, J. (2020b, June 17). Yes, abolishing qualified immunity will likely alter police behavior. Cato at Liberty. https://www.cato.org/blog/yes-abolishing-qualified-immunity-will-likely-alter-police-behavior
Schweikert, J. (2020c, July 1). Finding a better way. USA Today. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/FINDING+A+BETTER+WAY.-a0633392250
Scott, S. (2008). Trying to touch the untouchables: The challenges faced by Texas plaintiffs asserting failure-to-protect suits against police departments. The Review of Litigation, 27(3), 539–564.
Sharp, M. (2017). The erosion of civil rights remedies: How Ashcroft v. al-Kidd altered qualified immunity. DePaul Journal for Social Justice, 10, 1–12.
Sheng, P. (2012). An “objectively reasonable” criticism of the doctrine of qualified immunity in excessive force cases brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Brigham Young University Journal of Public Law, 26, 99–110.
Sherman, L. (1980). Execution without trial: Police homicide and the constitution. Vanderbilt Law Review, 93(5), 2093–2114.
Smith, J. M. (2016). Closing the gap between what is lawful and what is right in police use of force jurisprudence by making police departments more democratic institutions. Michigan Journal of Race & Law, 21, 315–347.
Smith, F. O. (2018). Formalism, Ferguson, and the future of qualified immunity. Notre Dame Law Review, 93(5), 2093–2114.
Stauber, A. (2018). Note, when is a right not a right?: Qualified immunity after Pearson, Mitchell Hamline Law. Journal of Public Policy & Practice, 39, 125–156.
Stinson, P.M. (2017a). Charging a police officer in fatal shooting case is rare, and a conviction is even rarer. Criminal Justice Faculty Publications, 80. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/crim_just_pub/80
Stinson, P.M. (2017b). Police shootings data: What we know and what we don't know. Criminal Justice Faculty Publications. 78. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/crim_just_pub/78
Sussman, A. (2012). Shocking the conscience: What police tasers and weapon technology reveal about excessive force law. UCLA Law Review, 59(5), 1342–1415.
Urbonya, K. (1989). Problematic standards of reasonableness: Qualified immunity in section 1983 actions for a police officer’s use of excessive force. Temple Law Review, 62, 61–116.
Vaughn, M. S., Cooper, T. W., & del Carmen, R. V. (2001). Assessing legal liabilities in law enforcement: Police chiefs’ views. Crime & Delinquency, 47(1), 3–27.
Vladeck, S. (2009). AEDPA, saucier, and the stronger case for rights-first constitutional adjudication. Seattle University Law Review, 32, 595–616.
Warner, R. (2005). All mixed up about mixed questions. The Journal of Appellate Practice and Process, 7, 101–149.
Webster, W. (1992). The city in crisis: A report by the special advisor to the board of police commissioners on the civil disorder in Los Angeles. Los Angeles: Office of the Special Advisor to the Board of Police Commissioners.
Weinberger, L. (2017). Making mistakes about the law: Police mistakes of law between qualified immunity and lenity. University of Chicago Law Review, 84, 1561–1601.
Will, G.F. (2020, May 13). This doctrine has nullified accountability for police: The supreme court can rethink it. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/will-the-supreme-court-rectify-its-qualified-immunity-mistake/2020/05/12/05659d0e-9478-11ea-9f5e-56d8239bf9ad_story.html
Williams, J. (2012). Qualifying qualified immunity. Vanderbilt Law Review, 65, 1295–1336.
Wilson, C. (2000). Location, location, location: Recent developments in the qualified immunity defense. New York University Annual Survey of American Law, 57, 445–476.
Cases
Adickes v. S. H. Kress & Co., 398 U. S. 144, 90 S. Ct. 1598, 26 L. Ed. 2d 142 (1970).
Alexander v. City and County of San Francisco, 29 F. 3d 1355 (9th Cir. 1994).
Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 97 L. Ed. 2d 523, 107 S. Ct. 3034 (1987).
Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U. S. 242, 106 S. Ct. 2505, 91 L. Ed. 2d 202 (1986).
Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, 563 U. S. 731, 131 S. Ct. 2074, 179 L. Ed. 2d 1149 (2011).
Barnes v. Wright, 449 F.3d 709, 720 (6th Cir. 2006).
Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388, 29 L. Ed. 2d 619, 91 S. Ct. 1999 (1971).
Brandon v. Holt, 469 U.S. 464; 105 S. Ct. 873; 83 L. Ed. 2d 878 (1985).
Brosseau v. Haugen, 543 U. S. 194, 125 S. Ct. 596, 160 L. Ed. 2d 583 (2004) (per curiam).
Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed. 2d 650 (2006).
Butler v. State, 309 Ark. 211, 829 S. W. 2d 412, 415 (1992).
Butz v. Economou, 438 U.S. 478, 98 S. Ct. 2894, 57 L. Ed. 2d 895 (1978).
Carroll v. Carman, 574 U.S. 13, 135 S. Ct. 348, 190 L. Ed. 2d 311, 314 (2014) (per curiam).
Chavez v. Martinez, 538 U.S. 760, 123 S. Ct. 1994; 155 L. Ed. 2d 984 (2003).
City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan, 575 U. S. ___, 135 S. Ct. 1765, 191 L. Ed. 2d 856 (2015).
City of Escondido v. Emmons, 139 S. Ct. 500; 202 L. Ed. 2d 455 (2019).
Cohen v. Beneficial Industrial Loan Corp., 337 U.S. 541, 93 L. Ed. 1528, 69 S. Ct. 1221 (1949).
Cole v. Bone, 993 F.2d 1328 (8th Cir. 1993).
Conn v. Gabbert, 526 U.S. 286, 143 L. Ed. 2d 399, 119 S. Ct. 1292 (1999).
Copeland v. Locke, 613 F.3d 875 (8th Cir. 2010).
Deorle v. Rutherford, 272 F. 3d 1272 (9th Cir. 2001).
District of Columbia v. Wesby, 583 U. S. ___, 138 S. Ct. 577, 199 L. Ed. 2d 453 (2018) (per curiam).
Elder v. Holloway, 510 U.S. 510; 114 S. Ct. 1019; 127 L. Ed. 2d 344 (1994).
Estate of Starks v. Enyart, 5 F.3d 230 (7th Cir. 1993).
Fields v. City of Philadelphia, 862 F.3d 353 (3d Cir. 2017).
Garcia v. Imperial, No. 08-CV-2357, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 102306, 2010 WL 3834020 (SD Cal., Sept. 28, 2010).
Glenn v. Washington County, 673 F. 3d 864 (9th Cir. 2011).
Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 104 L. Ed. 2d 443, 109 S. Ct. 1865 (1989).
Gravelet-Blondin v. Shelton, 728 F. 3d 1086 (9th Cir. 2013).
Grenier v. City of Champlin, 27 F. 3d 1346 (8th Cir. 1994).
Grissom v. Roberts, 902 F.3d 1162 (10th Cir. 2018).
Groh v. Ramirez, 540 U.S. 551, 124 S. Ct. 1284, 157 L. Ed. 2d 1068 (2004).
Hanlon v. Berger, 526 U.S. 808; 119 S. Ct. 1706; 143 L. Ed. 2d 978 (1999).
Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 73 L. Ed. 2d 396, 102 S. Ct. 2727 (1982).
Harris v. Roderick, 126 F. 3d 1189 (9th Cir. 1997).
Hartman v. Moore, 547 U.S. 250, 126 S. Ct. 1695, 164 L. Ed. 2d 441 (2006).
Hope v. Pelzer, 536 U. S. 730, 122 S. Ct. 2508, 153 L. Ed. 2d 666 (2002).
Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 116 L. Ed. 2d 589, 112 S. Ct. 534 (1991).
Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U.S. 409 (1976).
Johnson v. Jones, 515 U. S. 304, 115 S. Ct. 2151, 132 L. Ed. 2d 238 (1995).
Keenan v. Tejeda, 290 F.3d 252 (5th Cir. 2002).
Kisela v. Hughes, 584 U. S. ___, 138 S. Ct. 1148, 200 L. Ed. 2d 449, 453 (2018) (per curiam).
Kolesnikov v. Sacramento County, No. S-06-2155, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 33155, 2008 WL 1806193 (ED Cal., Apr. 22, 2008).
Krout v. Goemmer, 583 F.3d 557 (8th Cir. 2009).
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).
Long v. Slaton, 508 F. 3d 576 (11th Cir. 2007).
Lytle v. Bexar County, 560 F. 3d 404 (5th Cir. 2009).
Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 89 L. Ed. 2d 271, 106 S. Ct. 1092 (1986).
Mascorro v. Billings, 656 F. 3d 1198 (10th Cir. 2011).
McCabe v. Parker, 608 F.3d 1068 (8th Cir. 2010).
Messerschmidt v. Millender 565 U.S. 535; 132 S. Ct. 1235; 182 L. Ed. 2d 47 (2012).
Middletown v. Flinchum, 95 Ohio St. 3d 43, 2002 Ohio 1625, 765 N. E. 2d 330, 332 (2002).
Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 86 L. Ed. 2d 411, 105 S. Ct. 2806 (1985).
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694, 86 S. Ct. 1602 (1966).
Monell v. New York City Dept. of Social Services, 436 U.S. 658 (1978).
Morgan v. Swanson, 659 F.3d 359 (5th Cir. 2011).
Mozzochi v. Borden, 959 F.2d 1174 (2nd Cir. 1992).
Mullenix v. Luna, 577 U. S. 7, 136 S. Ct. 305, 193 L. Ed. 2d 255 (2015) (per curiam).
Owen v. City of Independence, 445 U.S. 622 (1980).
Patterson v. New York, 97 S. Ct. 2319 (1977).
Parker v. Woodruff County Sheriff Department, 858 F.3d 1141 (8th Cir. 2017).
Payne v. Tennessee, 501 U.S. 808, 111 S. Ct. 2597, 115 L. Ed. 2d 720 (1991).
Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 129 S. Ct. 808, 172 L. Ed. 2d 565 (2009).
Phillips v. Irvin, 222 Fed. Appx. 928 (11th Cir. 2007) (per curiam).
Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992).
Plumhoff v. Rickard, 572 U.S. 765, 134 S. Ct. 2012, 188 L. Ed. 2d 1056 (2014).
Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority v. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 506 U.S. 139, 121 L. Ed. 2d 605, 113 S. Ct. 684 (1993).
Reed v. Palmer, 906 F.3d 540 (7th Cir. 2018).
Reichle v. Howards, 566 U.S. 658, 132 S. Ct. 2088, 182 L. Ed. 2d 985 (2012).
Ryburn v. Huff, 565 U.S. 469; 132 S. Ct. 987; 181 L. Ed. 2d 966 (2012).
Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 121 S. Ct. 2151, 150 L. Ed. 2d 272 (2001).
Scott v. Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 127 S. Ct. 1769, 167 L. Ed. 2d 686 (2007).
Siegert v. Gilley, 500 U.S. 226, 114 L. Ed. 2d 277, 111 S. Ct. 1789 (1991).
Singer v. Fulton Cty. Sheriff, 63 F.3d 110 (2nd Cir. 1995).
Smith v. Freland, 954 F.2d 343 (6th Cir. 1992).
Stanton v. Sims, 571 U.S. 3; 134 S. Ct. 3; 187 L. Ed. 2d 341 (2013).
State v. Domicz, 188 N. J. 285, 907 A. 2d 395, 405 (2006).
State v. Henry, 133 N. J. 104, 627 A.2d 125 (1993).
State v. Johnston, 184 Wis. 2d 794, 518 N.W.2d 759 (1994).
State v. Ricci, 144 N. H. 241, 739 A. 2d 404, 407 (1999).
Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U. S. 1, 105 S. Ct. 1694, 85 L. Ed. 2d 1 (1985).
Tolan v. Cotton, 572 U.S. 650; 134 S. Ct. 1861; 188 L. Ed. 2d 895 (2014) (per curiam).
Tower v. Glover, 467 U.S. 914 (1984).
United States v. Bramble, 103 F.3d 1475 (9th Cir. 1996).
United States v. Diaz, 814 F.2d 454 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 857, 108 S. Ct. 166, 98 L. Ed. 2d 120 (1987).
United States v. Garcia, 997 F. 2d 1273 (9th Cir. 1993).
United States v. Gaudin, 515 U.S. 506, 115 S. Ct. 2310, 132 L. Ed. 2d 444 (1995).
United States v. James, 40 F. 3d 850 (7th Cir.1994), vacated on other grounds, 516 U.S. 1022, 116 S. Ct. 664, 133 L. Ed. 2d 515 (1995).
United States v. Johnson, 256 F. 3d 895 (2001) (en banc) (per curiam).
United States v. Lanier, 520 U. S. 259, 117 S. Ct. 1219, 137 L. Ed. 2d 432 (1997).
United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 104 S. Ct. 3405, 82 L. Ed. 2d 677 (1984).
United States v. Paul, 808 F.2d 645 (1986).
United States v. Pollard, 215 F.3d 643 (6th Cir), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 999, 121 S. Ct. 498, 148 L. Ed. 2d 469 (2000).
United States v. Titemore, 437 F. 3d 251 (2nd Cir. 2006).
United States v. Yoon, 398 F.3d 802, cert. denied, 546 U.S. 977, 126 S. Ct. 548, 163 L. Ed. 2d 460 (2005).
Vaughan v. Cox, 343 F. 3d 1323 (11th Cir 2003).
Vaughn v. Ruoff, 253 F.3d 1124 (8th Cir. 2001).
Watts v. United States, 394 U. S. 705, 89 S. Ct. 1399, 22 L. Ed. 2d 664 (1969).
Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 740, 104 S. Ct. 2091, 80 L. Ed. 2d 732 (1984).
White v. Pauly, 580 U. S. ___, 137 S. Ct. 548, 196 L. Ed. 2d 463, 468 (2017) (per curiam).
Wilson v. Layne, 526 U.S. 603, 143 L. Ed. 2d 818, 119 S. Ct. 1692 (1999).
Wood v. Kesler, 323 F.3d 872 (11th Cir. 2003).
Wood v. Moss, 572 U.S. 744; 134 S. Ct. 2056; 188 L. Ed. 2d 1039 (2014).
Zigler v. Abbasi, 137 S.Ct. 1843 (2017).
Laws
28 U.S.C. §1291
42 U.S.C. § 1983
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors confirm that they have no conflict of interest to declare.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Braaten, C.N., Vaughn, M.S. Police Officers’ Qualified Immunity in Excessive Force Claims, Warrant Execution, and Warrantless Searches and Arrests: Tracing the Evolution of, and Stagnation in, U.S. Supreme Court Precedents. Am J Crim Just 48, 65–95 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09617-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09617-w