Abstract
Childhood aggression is associated with many deleterious outcomes and is a common reason for psychiatric referral (Card & Little, 2006; Gurnani et al., 2016). One factor associated with childhood aggression is Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs; Felitti et al., 1998). However, existing research remains equivocal on which characteristics of ACEs (e.g., cumulative impact, typology, etc.) are significantly elated to aggression, especially when considering differential effects of ACEs on proactive aggression (PA) and reactive aggression (RA; Dodge & Coie, 1987). Post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are a common negative sequalae of ACEs and are characterized by disruptions in several cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes similar to those associated with both RA and PA (e.g., Marsee, 2008). As such, the examination of PTSS as an underlying mechanism of influence on the relation between ACEs, PA, and RA is warranted. The present study fills several gaps in the literature by examining ACE characteristics that might be related to PTSS, PA, and RA while also examining direct and indirect effects on the relation between ACEs, PTSS and PA and RA. Results indicated the type of ACE, specifically child maltreatment ACEs (CM-ACEs), was most strongly related to all outcome variables. Therefore, CM-ACEs were included in a path analysis with PTSS, PA, and RA. Results indicated a significant indirect effect for PTSS on the relation between CM-ACEs and RA (β = .18, p < .01) but not PA. Findings have several implications for future research and clinical practice, especially for children with an extensive history of CM-ACEs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
Data is available upon request.
Code Availability
Availability from the authors upon request.
References
Agorastos, A., Pittman, J. O., Angkaw, A. C., Nievergelt, C. M., Hansen, C. J., Aversa, L. H., Parisi, S. A., Barkuaskas, D. A., the Marine Resilience Study Team, & Baker, D. G. (2014). The cumulative effect of different childhood trauma types on self-reported symptoms of adult male depression and PTSD, substance abuse and health-related quality of life in a large active-duty military cohort. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 58, 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.07.014.
Allen, B. (2011). Childhood psychological abuse and adult aggression: The mediating role of self-capacities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2093–2110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510383035.
Althoff, R. R., Verhulst, F., Rettew, D. C., Hudziak, J. J., & van der Ende, J. (2010). Adult outcomes of childhood dysregulation: A 14-year follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 1105–1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.08.006.
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4.
American Psychological Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental. disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Asscher, J. J., Van der Put, C. E., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2015). Gender differences in the impact of abuse and neglect victimization on adolescent offending behavior. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 215–225.
Atzl, V. M., Narayan, A. J., Rivera, L. M., & Lieberman, A. F. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and prenatal mental health: Type of ACEs and age of maltreatment onset. Journal of Family Psychology, 33, 304–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000510.
Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62, 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008.
Baglivio, M. T., & Epps, N. (2015). The interrelatedness of adverse childhood experiences among high-risk juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14, 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014566286.
Barboza, G. E. (2018). Latent classes and cumulative impacts of adverse childhood experiences. Child Maltreatment, 23, 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517736628.
Bennett, D. C., Modrowski, C. A., Chaplo, S. D., & Kerig, P. K. (2016). Facets of emotion dysregulation as mediators of the association between trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms in justice-involved adolescents. Traumatology, 22, 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000085.
Bethell, C. D., Carle, A., Hudziak, J., Gombojav, N., Powers, K., Wade, R., & Braveman, P. (2017). Methods to assess adverse childhood experiences of children and families: Toward approaches to promote child well-being in policy and practice. Academy of Pediatrics, 17, S51–S69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.04.161.
Bethell, C. D., Newacheck, P., Hawes, E., & Haflon, N. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: Assessing the impact on health and school engagement and the mitigating role of resilience. Health Affairs, 33, 2106–2115. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2014.0914.
Bierman, K. L., Cole, J., Dodge, K., Greenberg, M., Lochman, J., McMohan, R., Pinderhughes, E., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2013). School outcomes of aggressive-disruptive children: Prediction from kindergarten risk factors and impact of the fast track prevention program. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21467.
Breslau, N., Peterson, E. L., Poisson, L. M., Schultz, L. M., & Lucia, V. C. (2004). Estimating post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: Lifetime perspective and the impact of typical traumatic events. Psychological Medicine, 34, 889–898. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291703001612.
Brown, S., Fite, P. J., & Poquiz, J. (2016). Moderating effect of gender on outcomes associated with stressful life events among elementary school-age youth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47, 593–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0592-5.
Brown, S., Fite, P. J., DiPierro, M., & Bortolato, M. (2017). Links between stressful life events and proactive and reactive functions of aggression. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 26, 691–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1322658.
Bubier, J. L., Drabick, D. A. G., & Breiner, T. (2009). Autonomic functioning moderates the relations between contextual factors and externalizing behaviors among inner-city children. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015555.
Campbell, J. A., Walker, R. J., & Egede, L. E. (2016). Associations between adverse childhood experiences, high-risk behaviors, and morbidity in adulthood. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 50, 344–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.022.
Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 466–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406071904.
Chen, F. R., Raine, A., & Granger, D. A. (2018). Testosterone and proactive-reactive aggression and the moderating role of harsh discipline. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 1599–1612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0399-5.
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541–565. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199505000-00008.
Cloitre, M., Khan, C., Mackintosh, M. A., & Garvert, D. W. (2018). Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between aces and physical and mental health. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000374.
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (Eds.). (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for children and adolescents: Treatment applications. Guilford Press.
Connor, D. F., Steingard, R. J., Cunningham, J. A., & Anderson, A. A. (2004). Proactive and reactive aggression in referred children and adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74, 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.2.129.
Cozolino, L. (2014). The Norton series on interpersonal neurobiology. The neuroscience of human relationships: Attachment and the developing social brain (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton & co.
Cunningham, T. J., Ford, E. S., Croft, J. B., Merrick, M. T., Rolle, I. V., & Giles, W. H. (2014). Sex-specific relationships between adverse childhood experiences and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in five states. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 9, 1033–1043. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4186575/.
Dakil, S. R., Cox, M., Lin, H., & Flores, G. (2011). Racial and ethnic disparities in physical abuse reporting and child protective services interventions in the United States. Journal of the National Medicine Association, 103, 926–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-9684(15)30449-1.
De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, A. A. B. (2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 185–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.01.002.
DiPierro, M., Fite, P. J., Cooley, J. L., & Poquiz, J. L. (2016). Academic aspirations as a moderator of the link between negative life events and delinquency in a sample of Latino youth. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45, 505–523 http://hdl.handle.net/1808/18679.
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1146.
Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., Bates, J. E., & Petit, G. S. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.106.1.37.
Dong, M., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Dube, S. A., Williamson, D. F., Thompson, T. J., Loo, C. M., & Giles, W. H. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 771–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008.
Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Chapman, D. P., Giles, W., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Childhood abuse and neglect and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The adverse childhood experiences study. Pediatrics, 111, 564–572. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.3.564.
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22, 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000014.
Dyer, K. W., Dorahy, M. J., Hamilton, G., Corry, M., Shannon, M., MacSherry, A., McRobert, G., Elder, R., & McElhill, B. (2009). Anger, aggression, and self-harm in PTSD and complex PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1099–1114. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20619.
Edwards, V. J., Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2007). It’s OK to ask about past abuse. American Psychologist, 62, 327–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X62.4.327.
Elhai, J. D., Layne, C. M., Steinberg, A. S., Vrymer, M. J., Briggs, E. C., Ostrowski, S. A., & Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index. Part 2: Investigating factor structure findings in a national clinic-referred youth sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21755.
Enlow, M. B., Eneland, B., Carlson, E., Blood, E., & Wright, R. J. (2014). Mother-infant attachment and the intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 41–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000515.
Erwin, B. A., Newman, E., McMackin, R. A., Morrissey, C., & Kaloupek, D. G. (2000). PTSD, malevolent environment, and criminality among criminally involved male adolescents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 196–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854800027002004.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V. K., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 14, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.
Fite, P. J., Poquiz, J., Cooley, J. L., Stoppelbein, L., Becker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., & Greening, L. (2016). Risk factors associated with proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 38, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9503-0.
Fite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2009a). Reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent males. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051.
Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2009b). Proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient population: Relations to psychopathic characteristics. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 481–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809332706.
Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., Greening, L., & Gaertner, A. E. (2009c). Further validation of a measure of proactive and reactive aggression within a clinical child population. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40, 367–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-009-0132-2.
Fite, P. J., Wimsatt, A. R., Elkins, S., & Grassetti, S. N. (2011). Contextual influences of proactive and reactive subtypes of aggression. Child Indicators Research, 5, 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-011-9116-4.
Ford, J. D., Chapman, J., Connor, D. F., & Cruise, K. R. (2012). Complex trauma and aggression in secure juvenile justice settings. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 694–724. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854812436957.
Foster, E. M., Jones, D. E., & the Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2005). The high costs of aggression: Public expenditures resulting from conduct disorder. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1767–1772. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.061424.
Garrett, A. S., Carrion, V., Kletter, H., & Karchemskiy, A. (2012). Brain activation to facial expressions in youth with PTSD symptoms. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 449–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21892.
Gebauer, S., Moore, R., & Salas, J. (2019). All traumas are not created equal. JAMA Pediatrics, 173, 398–399. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5556.
Gilbert, R., Spatz Widom, C., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, J. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61706-7.
Goldman, J., Salus, M. K., Wolcott, D., & Kennedy, K. Y. (2003). A coordinated response to child abuse and neglect: The foundation for practice. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children - Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau, Office on Child Abuse and Neglect. http://centerforchildwelfare.fmhi.usf.edu/kb/trprev/a%20coordinated%20response%20to %20child%20abuse%20and%20neglect-the%20foundation%20for%20practice.pdf.
Grey, H. R., Ford, K., Bellis, M. A., Lowey, H., & Wood, S. (2019). Associations between childhood deaths and adverse childhood experiences: An audit of data from a child death overview panel. Child Abuse and Neglect, 90, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.01.020.
Gurnani, T., Ivanov, I., & Newcorn, J. H. (2016). Pharmacotherapy of aggression in child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 26, 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0167.
Hagenbeek, F. A., Kluft, C., Hankemeier, T., Bartels, M., Draisman, H. M., Middeldorp, M., Berger, R., Noto, A., Milena, L., Pool, R., Fanos, V., & Boomsma, B. I. (2016). Discovery of biochemical biomarkers for aggression: A role for metabolics in psychiatry. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 171(5):719–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32435.
Hambrick, E. P., Brawner, T. W., Perry, B. D., Brandt, K., Hofmeister, K., & Collins, J. O. (2019). Beyond the ACE score: Examining relationships between timing of developmental adversity, relational health and developmental outcomes in children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 33, 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2018.11.001.
Hartley, C. H., Pettit, J. W., & Castellanos, D. (2018). Reactive aggression and suicide-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A review and preliminary meta-analysis. Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 48, 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12325.
Hecht, L. K., & Latzman, R. D. (2018). Exploring the differential associations between components of executive functioning and reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2017.1314450.
Herzog, J. I., & Schmalz, C. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and the consequences on neurobiological, psychosocial, and somatic conditions across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 420. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00420.
Hubbard, J. A., Dodge, K. A., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Coie, J. D. (2001). The dyadic nature of social information processing in boys’ reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 268–280. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.80.2.268.
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2, 356–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4.
IBM Corp. Released. (2019). IBM SPSS statistics for mac OS, version 26.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
Kaplow, J. B., Rolon-Arroyo, B., Layne, C. M., Rooney, E., Oosterhoof, B., Hill, R., Steinberg, A. M., Lotterman, J., Gallagher, K. A. S., & Pynoose, R. S. (2020). Validation of the UCLA PTSD reaction index for DSM-5: A developmentally informed assessment tool for youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 59, 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.10.019.
Kendall-Thackett, K. A. (2000). Physiological correlates of childhood abuse: Chronic hyperarousal in PTSD, depression, and irritable bowel syndrome. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 799–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00136-8.
Kolla, N. J., Malcolm, C., Attard, S., Arenovich, T., Blackwood, N., & Hodgins, S. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and aggressive behavior in violent offenders with psychopathy. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58, 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371305800808.
Kotch, J. B., Lewis, T., Hussey, J. M., English, D., Thompson, R., Litrownik, A. J., Runyan, D. K., Bangdiwala, S. I., Margolis, B., & Dubowitz, H. Importance of early neglect for childhood aggression. Pediatrics, 121, 725–731. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-3622.
Lamers-Winkelman, F., Willemen, A. M., & Visser, M. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences of referred children exposed to intimate partner violence: Consequences for their wellbeing. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.07.006.
Lee, V., & Hoaken, P. N. (2007). Cognition, emotion, and neurobiological development: Mediating the relation between maltreatment and aggression. Child Maltreatment, 12, 281–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559507303778.
Maguire-Jack, K., Cao, Y., & Yoon, S. (2018). Racial disparities in child maltreatment: The role of social service availability. Children and Youth Services Review, 86, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.014.
Marsee, M. A. (2008). Reactive aggression and posttraumatic stress in adolescents affected by hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 519–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802148152.
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Alves, S. A., & Mendes, W. B. (2015). Child maltreatment and autonomic nervous system reactivity: Identifying dysregulated stress reactivity patterns using the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 76, 538–546. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000098.
Merikangas, K. R., Nakamura, E. F., & Kessler, R. C. (2009). Epidemiology of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 11, 7–20. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2807642/pdf/DialoguesClinNeurosci-11-7.pdf.
Merrick, M. T., Ports, K. A., Ford, D. C., Afifi, T. O., Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2017). Unpacking the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.016.
Modrowski, C. A., Chaplo, S. D., Kerig, P. K., & Mozley, M. M. (2019). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic overmodulation and undermodulation, and nonsuicidal self-injury in traumatized justice-involved adolescents. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11, 743–750. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000469.
Moore, C. C., Hubbard, J., Morrow, M. T., Barhight, L. R., Lines, M. M., Sallee, M., & Hyde, C. T. (2018). The simultaneous assessment of and relations between children's sympathetic and parasympathetic psychophysiology and their reactive and proactive aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 44, 614–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21786.
Mumford, E. A., Taylor, B. G., Berg, M., Liu, W., & Miesfeld, N. (2019). The social anatomy of adverse childhood experiences and aggression in a representative sample of young adults in the U.S. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.10.016.
Murphy, A., Steele, M., Dube, S. R., Bate, J., Bonuck, K., Meissner, P., Goldman, H., & Steele, H. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) questionnaire and adult attachment interview (AAI): Implications for parent child relationships. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.004.
Murray-Close, D., & Rellini, A. (2012). Cardiovascular reactivity and proactive and reactive relational aggression among women with and without a history of sexual abuse. Biological Psychology, 89, 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.09.008.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus User’s Guide (Eighth ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nurius, P. S., Green, S., Logan-Greene, P., & Borja, S. (2016). Life course pathways of adverse childhood experiences toward adult psychological well-being: A stress process analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 45, 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.03.008.
Pederson, C. A., Fite, P. J., & Bortlato, M. (2017). The role of functions of aggression in associations between behavioral inhibition and activation and mental health outcomes. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 8, 811–830. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1370053.
Pederson, C. A., Rathert, J. L., Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2016). The role of parenting styles in the relation between functions of aggression and internalizing symptoms in a child psychiatric inpatient population. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47, 819–829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0614-3.
Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., Sugaya, L. S., Caye, A., & Rohde, L. A. (2015). Annual research review: A meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 56, 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12381.
Porsche, C. M., Cherny, S. S., Krapohl, E., van Beijsterveldt, C. E., Loukola, A., Korhonen, T., Pulkkinen, L. Corley, R., Rhee, S., Kaprio, J., Rose, R. R., Hewitt, J. K., Sham, P., Plomin, R., Boomsma, D. I., & Bartels, M. (2016). Longitudinal heritability of childhood aggression. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 171, 697–707. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32420.
Radcliff, E., Crouch, E., Stompolis, M., & Srivastav, A. (2019). Homelessness in childhood and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Maternal and Child Health Journal, 23, 811–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-018-02698-w.
Rehan, W., Antfolk, J., Johansson, A., Jern, P., & Santtila, P. (2017). Experiences of severe childhood maltreatment, depression, anxiety and alcohol abuse among adults in Finland. PLoS One, 12, e0177252. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177252.
Richey, A., Brown, S., Fite, P. J., & Bortolato, M. (2016). The role of hostile attributions in the associations between child maltreatment and reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Aggression and Maltreatment Trauma, 25, 1043–1057. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2016.1231148.
Scarpa, A., Haden, S. C., & Tanaka, A. (2010). Being hot-tempered: Autonomic, emotional, and behavioral distinctions between childhood reactive and proactive aggression. Biological Psychology, 84, 488–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.11.006.
Schalinski, I., Weicher, M. H., Nischk, D., Hinderer, E., Muller, O., & Rockstroh, B. (2016). Type and timing of adverse childhood experiences differentially affect severity of PTSD, dissociative and depressive symptoms in adult inpatients. BMC Psychiatry, 16, 295. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1004-5.
Sedlack, A. J. & Bruce, C. (2010). Youth’s characteristics and backgrounds. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227730.pdf.
Shah, A. N., Beck, A. F., Sucharew, H. J., Litman, S., Pfefferman, C., Haney, J., Shah, S. S., Simmons, J. M., & Auger, K. A. (2018). Parental adverse experiences and resilience on coping after discharge. Pediatrics, 141, e20172127. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-2127.
Shea, A., Welsh, C., Macmillan, H., & Steiner, M. (2005). Child maltreatment and HPA axis dysregulation: Relationship to major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in females. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 162–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.07.001.
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_2.
Smeets, K. C., Oostermeijer, S., Lappenschaar, M., Cohn, M., van der Meer, J. M. J., Popma, A., Jansen, L. M. C., Rommelse, N. N. J., Scheepers, F. E., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2017). Are proactive and reactive aggression meaningful distinctions in adolescents? A variable- and person-based approach. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0149-5.
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M., Decker, K., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6, 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-004-0048-2.
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Ghosh, C., Ostrowski, S. A., Gulley, K., Briggs, E. C., & Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21780.
Stimmel, M. A., Cruise, K. R., Ford, J. D., & Weiss, R. A. (2014). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology, and aggression in male juvenile offenders. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 184–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032509.
Swopes, R. M., Simonet, D. V., Jaffe, A. E., Tett, R. P., & Davis, J. L. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and emotional intelligence in partner aggression. Violence and Victims, 28, 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-12-00026.
Taft, C. T., Schumm, J. A., Marshall, A. D., Panuzio, J., & Holtzworth-Munroe, A. (2008). Family-of-origin maltreatment, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, social information processing deficits, and relationship abuse perpetration. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 637–646. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.117.3.637.
Turner, H. A., Finkelhor, D., & Ormrod, R. (2010). Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 38, 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.012.
van der Kolk, B. A. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06.
Vitaro, F., & Brendgen, M. (2005). Proactive and reactive aggression: A developmental perspective. In R. E. Trembly, W. M. Hartup, & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression. New York: Guilford Press.
Wagner, C. R., & Abaied, J. L. (2015). Relational victimization and proactive versus reactive relational aggression: The moderating effects of respiratory sinus arrhythmia and skin conductance. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 566–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21596.
Walker, J. S., & Bright, J. A. (2009). False inflated self-esteem and violence: A systematic review and cognitive model. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 1, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940701656808.
Wang, X., & Maguire-Jack, K. (2018). Family and environmental influences on child behavioral health: The role of neighborhood disorder and adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 39, 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000506.
Waschbusch, D. A., Willoughby, M. T., & Pelham, W. E. (1998). Criterion validity and the utility of reactive and proactive aggression: Comparisons to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and other measures of functioning. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 396–405. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_3.
Zettler, H., Wolf, K. T., Baglivio, M. T., Craig, J. M., & Epps, N. (2017). The racial and gender differences in the impact of adverse childhood experiences on juvenile residential placement. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16, 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204017698213.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This study was approved by the University of Alabama at Birmingham Institutional Review Board and performed in accordance with the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.
Consent to Participate
Assent was obtained from all participants for their information obtained through the quality assurance program to be used in research. The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.
Consent for Publication
All authors agree to allow publication of the manuscript in the Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment.
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests
Elizabeth M. McRae, Laura Stoppelbein, Sarah E. O’Kelley, Paula Fite and Shana B. Smith declare they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
McRae, E.M., Stoppelbein, L., O’Kelley, S.E. et al. An Examination of Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms and Aggression among Children with a History of Adverse Childhood Experiences. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 43, 657–670 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-021-09884-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-021-09884-1