Abstract
Parent–child interactions are critical for a child’s overall wellbeing and growth, however there are differences in the types of interactions that mothers and fathers engage in. For example, fathers often utilize physical play, such as Rough-and-Tumble Play (RTP), to interact and bond with their child. Father-child RTP appears to contribute to a range of child outcomes, including social, emotional cognitive and behaviour development. Given the now robust evidence for these benefits of father–child play and RTP specifically, there is a need for a more complete understanding of the factors that contribute to the quality of fathers’ RTP. This study examined the association between quality of father–toddler RTP and a range of paternal characteristics, parenting factors, child demographics and child developmental domains. The study included 64 sets of parents (mothers and fathers) and their toddler (age 18–24 months). Parent-reported questionnaires (demographic information, frequency of father–toddler RTP, father parenting stress, and child social-emotional development) were collected, observations of child developmental attainment (Bayley-III) completed and father–toddler RTP play interactions were rated for quality. We found that RTP for fathers who engaged in more father–toddler RTP, whose children were older and more socially-emotionally mature, was rated as higher quality in their RTP. By demonstrating links of RTP quality with both parenting behaviour and child development, this study contributes to a more complete understanding of the nature and context of father–child interactions. Father–child physical play, including RTP, may present an opportunity for professionals to bring fathers into their work with families.
Highlights
-
When fathers engage in physical play with their children, it is generally more stimulating, vigorous and arousing for the child than mothers’ play.
-
The frequency of rough and tumble play is closely related to the quality of the play
-
The quality of rough and tumble play is linked to children’s age and social-emotional maturity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abidin, R. R., & Abidin, R. R. (1990). Parenting Stress Index (PSI) (Vol. 100). Pediatric Psychology Press Charlottesville, VA. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED238896.
Achtergarde, S., Postert, C., Wessing, I., Romer, G., & Müller, J. M. (2015). Parenting and child mental health: influences of parent personality, child temperament, and their interaction.The Family Journal, 23(2), 167–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480714564316.
Amodia-Bidakowska, A., Laverty, C., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2020). Father-child play: a systematic review of its frequency, characteristics and potential impact on children’s development. Developmental Review, 57, 100924 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2020.100924.
Anderson, S., StGeorge, J., & Roggman, L. (2019). Measuring the quality of early father-child rough and tumble play: tools for practice and research. Child & Youth Care Forum, 48(6), 889–915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-019-09513-9.
Anthony, L. G., Anthony, B. J., Glanville, D. N., Naiman, D. Q., Waanders, C., & Shaffer, S. (2005). The relationships between parenting stress, parenting behaviour and preschoolers’ social competence and behaviour problems in the classroom. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 14(2), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.385.
Barth, J. M., & Parke, R. D. (1993). Parent-child relationship influences on children’s transition to school. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39(2), 173–195. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23090503.
Bayley, N. (2006). Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. PsychCorp, Pearson.
Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Woodworth, S. (1995). Personality and parenting: exploring the mediating role of transient mood and daily hassles. Journal of Personality, 63(4), 905–929. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00320.x.
Bode, M. M., D’Eugenio, D. B., Mettelman, B. B., & Gross, S. J. (2014). Predictive validity of the Bayley, at 2 years for intelligence quotient at 4 years in preterm infants. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 35(9), 570–575. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000110.
Cabrera, N. J., Fitzgerald, H. E., Bradley, R. H., & Roggman, L. (2014). The ecology of father‐child relationships: an expanded model. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6(4), 336–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12054.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (2015). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Ravenio Books.
Carone, N., Baiocco, R., Lingiardi, V., & Barone, L. (2020). Gay and heterosexual single father families created by surrogacy: father–child relationships, parenting quality, and children’s psychological adjustment. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-019-00428-7.
Chevalier, N., Jackson, J., Roux, A. R., Moriguchi, Y., & Auyeung, B. (2019). Differentiation in prefrontal cortex recruitment during childhood: evidence from cognitive control demands and social contexts. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 36, 100629 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100629.
Cielinski, K. L., Vaughn, B. E., Seifer, R., & Contreras, J. (1995). Relations among sustained engagement during play, quality of play, and mother-child interaction in samples of children with Down syndrome and normally developing toddlers. Infant Behavior and Development, 18(2), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(95)90046-2.
Connolly, B. H., McClune, N. O., & Gatlin, R. (2012). Concurrent validity of the Bayley-III and the Peabody developmental motor scale–2. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 24(4), 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0b013e318267c5cf.
Cooney, T. M., Pedersen, F. A., Indelicato, S., & Palkovitz, R. (1993). Timing of fatherhood: is” on-time” optimal? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55(1), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.2307/352969.
Darke, P. R., & Goldberg, S. (1994). Father-infant interaction and parent stress with healthy and medically compromised infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 17(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(94)90017-5.
Deater-Deckard, K. D., & Panneton, R. (2017). Parental stress and early child development. Springer.
Dickson, K. L., Walker, H., & Fogel, A. (1997). The relationship between smile type and play type during parent-infant play. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 925–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.925.
Dumont, C., & Paquette, D. (2013). What about the child’s tie to the father? A new insight into fathering, father–child attachment, children’s socio-emotional development and the activation relationship theory. Early Child Development and Care, 183(3-4), 430–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711592.
Elfers, T., Martin, J., & Sokol, B. (2008). Perspective taking: a review of research and theory extending Selman’s developmental model of perspective taking. In A.M. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 54, pp. 229–262). Nova Science Publishers.
Erden, F., & Alpaslan, Z. (2017). Gender issues in outdoor play. In T. Waller, Ärlemalm-Hagsér, E., Sandseter, E.B., Lee-Hammond, L., Lekies, K., & Wyver, S. (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of outdoor play and learning (pp. 348–360). Sage.
Felfe, C., & Lalive, R. (2018). Does early child care affect children’s development? Journal of Public Economics, 159, 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.01.014. 2018/03/01/.
Fisher, S. D. (2017). Paternal mental health: why is it relevant? American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 11(3), 200–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616629895. May-Jun.
Flanders, J. L., Herman, K. N., & Paquette, D. (2013). Rough-and-tumble play and the cooperation-competition dilemma: evolutionary and developmental perspectives on the development of social competence. In J. P. D. Narvaez, A. Schore & T. Gleason Ed., Evolution, early experience and human development: From research to practice and policy (pp. 371–387). Oxford University Press.
Flanders, J. L., Leo, V., Paquette, D., Pihl, R. O., & Séguin, J. R. (2009). Rough‐and‐tumble play and the regulation of aggression: an observational study of father–child play dyads. Aggressive Behavior, 35(4), 285–295. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283567/pdf/nihms2120.pdf.
Flanders, J. L., Simard, M., Paquette, D., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Pihl, R. O., & Séguin, J. R. (2010). Rough-and-tumble play and the development of physical aggression and emotion regulation: a five-year follow-up study. Journal of Family Violence, 25(4), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9297-5.
Fletcher, R., StGeorge, J. M., & Freeman, E. (2013). Rough and tumble play quality: theoretical foundations for a new measure of father-child interaction. Early Child Development and Care, 183(6), 746–759. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.723439.
Fliek, L., Daemen, E., Roelofs, J., & Muris, P. (2015). Rough-and-tumble play and other parental factors as correlates of anxiety symptoms in preschool children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(9), 2795–2804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0083-5.
Freedson, P. S., & Evenson, S. (1991). Familial aggregation in physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62(4), 384–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1991.10607538.
Freeman, H., Newland, L. A., & Coyl, D. D. (2010). New directions in father attachment. Early Child Development and Care, 180(1-2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430903414646.
Friedman, R. C., & Downey, J. I. (2014). Sexual differentiation of childhood play: a contemporary psychoanalytic perspective. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(1), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0231-9.
Fry, D. P. (2005). Rough-and-tumble social play in humans. In A.D. Pellegrini & P.K. Smith (Eds.), The Nature of Play: Great Apes and Humans (pp. 54–85). Guilford Press.
Furr, R. M., & Bacharach, V. R. (2017). Psychometrics: An Introduction. Sage Publications Incorporated.
Gardner, F. (2000). Methodological issues in the direct observation of parent-child interaction: do observational findings refelct the natural behavior of participants? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(3), 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1009503409699.
Ginsburg, K. R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), 182–191. https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/119/1/182.full.pdf.
Golombok, S., Rust, J., Zervoulis, K., Croudace, T., Golding, J., & Hines, M. (2008). Developmental trajectories of sex-typed behavior in boys and girls: a longitudinal general population study of children aged 2.5–8 years. Child Development, 79(5), 1583–1593. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01207.x.
Grossmann, K., & Grossmann, K. E. (2019). Essentials when studying child-father attachment: a fundamental view on safe haven and secure base phenomena. Attachment & Human Development, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2019.1589056.
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Fremmer‐Bombik, E., Kindler, H., Scheuerer‐Englisch, H., Zimmermann, & Peter (2002). The uniqueness of the child–father attachment relationship: fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16‐year longitudinal study. Social Development, 11(3), 301–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00202.
Harbin, S. J. (2016). Gender differences in rough and tumble play behaviors. International Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities, 8(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.7710/2168-0620.1080.
Haven, E. L., Manangan, C. N., Sparrow, J. K., & Wilson, B. J. (2014). The relation of parent–child interaction qualities to social skills in children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 18(3), 292–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312470036.
Hazen, N. L., McFarland, L., Jacobvitz, D., & Boyd‐Soisson, E. (2010). Fathers’ frightening behaviours and sensitivity with infants: relations with fathers’ attachment representations, father–infant attachment, and children’s later outcomes. Early Child Development and Care, 180(1-2), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430903414703.
Hook, J. L., & Chalasani, S. (2008). Gendered expectations? Reconsidering single fathers’ child‐care time. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(4), 978–990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00540.x.
Huang, C. Y., Costeines, J., Kaufman, J. S., & Ayala, C. (2014). Parenting stress, social support, and depression for ethnic minority adolescent mothers: impact on child development. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(2), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9807-1.
Jarvis, P. (2006). “Rough and tumble” play: lessons in life. Evolutionary Psychology, 4(1), 330–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490600400128.
Jia, R., Kotila, L. E., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J. (2012). Transactional relations between father involvement and preschoolers’ socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(6), 848–857. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030245. Dec.
John, A., Halliburton, A., & Humphrey, J. (2013). Child–mother and child–father play interaction patterns with preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 183(3-4), 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711595.
Jones, N. B 1972). Characteristics of ethological studies of human behaviour.Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour. (pp. 3–33). Cambridge University Press.
Kerr, D. C., Lopez, N. L., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2004). Parental discipline and externalizing behavior problems in early childhood: the roles of moral regulation and child gender. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(4), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000030291.72775.96.
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 220 https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.220.
Kuo, P. X., Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Lefever, J. E. B., Sarma, M. S., O’Neill, M., & Gettler, L. T. (2018). Fathers’ cortisol and testosterone in the days around infants’ births predict later paternal involvement. Hormones and Behavior, 106, 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.08.011.
Lamb, M. E. (1975). Fathers: forgotten contributors to child development. Human Development, 18, 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271493.
Lamb, M. E., & Lewis, C. (2013). Father-child relationships. In N.J. Cabrera & C.S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Handbook of Father Involvement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 119–135). Taylor & Francis.
Lee, S. J., Pace, G. T., Lee, J. Y., & Knauer, H. (2018). The association of fathers’ parental warmth and parenting stress to child behavior problems. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.05.020. Aug.
Lindsey, E. W., Mize, J., & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Differential play patterns of mothers and fathers of sons and daughters: implications for children’s gender role development. Sex Roles, 37(9-10), 643–661. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02936333.
MacDonald, K., & Parke, R. D. (1984). Bridging the gap: parent-child play interaction and peer interactive competence. Child Development, 55(4), 1265–1277. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129996.
MacDonald, K., & Parke, R. D. (1986). Parent-child physical play: the effects of sex and age of children and parents. Sex Roles, 15(7-8), 367–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287978.
Majdandžić, M., de Vente, W., & Bögels, S. M. (2016). Challenging parenting behavior from infancy to toddlerhood: etiology, measurement, and differences between fathers and mothers. Infancy, 21(4), 423–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12125.
Manlove, E. E., & Vernon‐Feagans, L. (2002). Caring for infant daughters and sons in dual‐earner households: maternal reports of father involvement in weekday time and tasks. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 11(4), 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.260.
Marini, M. M., & Shelton, B. A. (1993). Measuring household work: recent experience in the United States. Social Science Research, 22(4), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1006/ssre.1993.1018.
Martikainen, S., Pesonen, A.-K., Lahti, J., Heinonen, K., Feldt, K., Pyhälä, R., Tammelin, T., Kajantie, E., Eriksson, J. G., & Strandberg, T. E. (2013). Higher levels of physical activity are associated with lower hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis reactivity to psychosocial stress in children. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 98(4), E619–E627. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2012-3745.
McBride, B. A., Schoppe, S. J., & Rane, T. R. (2002). Child characteristics, parenting stress, and parental involvement: fathers versus mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(4), 998–1011. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00998.x.
McCabe, L. A., Rebello-Britto, P., Hernandez, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). Games children play: observing young children’s self-regulation across laboratory, home and school settings. In R.P.D. Delcarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of Infant, Toddler, and Preschool Mental Health (pp. 491–521). Oxford University Press.
McCambridge, J., Witton, J., & Elbourne, D. R. (2014). Systematic review of the Hawthorne effect: new concepts are needed to study research participation effects. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 67(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2013.08.015.
Meuwissen, A. S., & Carlson, S. M. (2015). Fathers matter: The role of father parenting in preschoolers’ executive function development.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 1–15.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.010.
Paquette, D. (2004). Theorizing the father-child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Human Development, 47(4), 193–219. https://doi.org/10.1159/000078723.
Paquette, D., & Dumont, C. (2013). Is father-child rough-and-tumble play associated with attachment or activation relationships? Early Child Development and Care, 183(6), 760–773.
Paquette, D., Carbonneau, R., Dubeau, D., Bigras, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2003). Prevalence of father-child rough-and-tumble play and physical aggression in preschool children. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(2), 171–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173483.
Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (2017). Human Motor Development: A Lifespan Approach. Routledge.
Pellegrini, A. D., Roseth, C. J., Mliner, S., Bohn, C. M., Van Ryzin, M., Vance, N., Cheatham, C. L., & Tarullo, A. (2007). Social dominance in preschool classrooms. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 121(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.121.1.54. Feb.
Pellegrini, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (1998). Physical activity play: the nature and function of a neglected aspect of playing. Child Development, 69(3), 577–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06226.x. Jun.
Pellis, S. M, Himmler, B. T, Himmler, S. M, Pellis, V. C, Gibb, R., & Kolb, B. (2018). Rough-and-tumble play and the development of the social brain: What do we know, how do we know it, and what do we need to know? The Neurobiology of Brain and Behavioral Development. (pp. 315–337). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804036-2.00012-1.
Privitera, G. J. (2015). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. New York, USA: Sage Publications.
Psychogiou, L., Russell, G., & Owens, M. (2020). Parents’ postnatal depressive symptoms and their children’s academic attainment at 16 years: pathways of risk transmission. British Journal of Psychology, 111(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12378.
Ramchandani, P. G., Domoney, J., Sethna, V., Psychogiou, L., Vlachos, H., & Murray, L. (2013). Do early father-infant interactions predict the onset of externalising behaviours in young children? Findings from a longitudinal cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02583.x.
Reijntjes, A., Kamphuis, J. H., Prinzie, P., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(4), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009.
Roggman, L. A., Boyce, L., & Newland, L. (2000). Assessing mother–infant interaction in play. In K. Gitlin-Weiner, A. Sandgrund, & C.E. Schaefer (Eds.), Play Diagnosis and Assessment (2nd ed., pp. 303–339). John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Roggman, L. A., Boyce, L. K., Cook, G. A., & Cook, J. (2002). Getting dads involved: predictors of father involvement in Early Head Start and with their children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23(1‐2), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10004.
Roopnarine, J. L., & Davidson, K. L. (2015). Parent-child play across cultures: advancing play research. American Journal of Play, 7, 228–252. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1053428.pdf.
Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., Rueda, M. R., & Posner, M. I. (2003). Developing mechanisms of temperamental effortful control. Journal of Personality, 71(6), 1113–1143. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7106009. Dec.
Roy, K. M., & Lucas, K. (2006). Generativity as second chance: low-income fathers and transformation of the difficult past. Research in Human Development, 3(2-3), 139–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2006.9683366. 2006/09/01.
Schultchen, D., Reichenberger, J., Mittl, T., Weh, T. R. M., Smyth, J. M., Blechert, J., & Pollatos, O. (2019). Bidirectional relationship of stress and affect with physical activity and healthy eating. British Journal of Health Psychology, 24(2), 315–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12355.
Sethna, V., Murray, L., Edmondson, O., Iles, J., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2018). Depression and playfulness in fathers and young infants: a matched design comparison study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 229, 364–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.107.
Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. Cengage Learning.
Shannon, J. D., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., London, K., & Cabrera, N. (2002). Beyond rough and tumble: Low-income fathers’ interactions and children’s cognitive development at 24 months. Parenting, 2(2), 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327922PAR0202_01.
Shears, J. K.(2007). Understanding differences in fathering activities across race and ethnicity. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 5(3), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X07080480.
Singh, A., & Masuku, M. (2014). Sampling techniques & determination of sample size in applied statistics research: an overview. International Journal of Economics. Commerce and Management, 2(11), 1–22. http://ijecm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/21131.pdf.
St George, J., & Freeman, E. (2017). Measurement of father–child rough-and-tumble play and its relations to child behavior. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38(6), 709–725. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21676.
StGeorge, J. M., Fletcher, R., Freeman, E., Paquette, D., & Dumont, C. (2015). Father-child interactions and children’s risk of injury. Early Child Development and Care, 185(9), 1409–1421.https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.1000888.
Stone, A. A., Bachrach, C. A., Jobe, J. B., Kurtzman, H. S., & Cain, V. S. (1999). The Science of Self-Report: Implications for Research and Practice. Psychology Press.
Swain, J. E., Dayton, C. J., Kim, P., Tolman, R. M., & Volling, B. L. (2014). Progress on the paternal brain: theory, animal models, human brain research, and mental health implications. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(5), 394–408. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21471. Sep-Oct.
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2004). Conceptualizing fathers’ roles: playmates and more. Human Development, 47(4), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1159/000078724.
Tannock, M. (2008). Rough and tumble play: an investigation of the perceptions of educators and young children [Article]. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(4), 357–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-007-0196-1.
Tucker, C. J., & Updegraff, K. (2009, Winter). The relative contributions of parents and siblings to child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2009(126), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.254.
Weiss, L. G., Oakland, T., & Aylward, G. P. (2010). Bayley-III Clinical Use and Interpretation. Academic Press.
Wical, K. A., & Doherty, W. J. (2005). How reliable are fathers’ reports of involvement with their children?: A methodological report. Fathering, 3(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.3149/fth.0301.81.
Xiong, H., & Scott, S. (2020). Amniotic testosterone and psychological sex differences: a systematic review of the extreme male brain theory. Developmental Review, 57, 100922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2020.100922. 2020/09/01/.
Yeung, W. J., Sandberg, J. F., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Hofferth, S. L. (2001). Children’s time with fathers in intact families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 136–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00136.x.
Young, M. D., & Morgan, P. J. (2017). Paternal physical activity: an important target to improve the health of fathers and their children. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 11(3), 212–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616689544.
Author Contributions
L.C. collaborated with the design, assisted with the data analyses, co-wrote the paper and edited the final manuscript. J.St.G collaborated with the design, assisted with the data analyses, co-wrote the paper and edited the final manuscript. T.H. collected the data, assisted with the data analyses, and writing up. E.F. collaborated with the design, assisted with the data analyses and writing of the paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Human Ethics Committee of the University of Newcastle (Australia) in accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, National Health and Medical Research (Australia) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
StGeorge, J.M., Campbell, L.E., Hadlow, T. et al. Quality and Quantity: A Study of Father–Toddler Rough-and-Tumble Play. J Child Fam Stud 30, 1275–1289 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01927-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01927-1