Jealousy due to social media? A systematic literature review and framework of social media-induced jealousy

2.1 Jealousy

Jealousy is defined as a metamorphic compound emotion that encompasses a compendium of feelings (Kristjánsson, 2016; Pfeiffer and Wong, 1989). The extant literature suggests that the multifaceted nature of jealousy is yet to be equivocally defined and conceptualized (Kristjánsson, 2016). However, the concept of jealousy may be broadly characterized as the perceived or actual threat of losing a valued relationship (Muise et al., 2014). It may also be understood as an emotional response to such a perceived threat (Utz and Beukeboom, 2011; Pfeiffer and Wong, 1989), where in most instances, the valued relationship is primarily romantic or sexual in nature (Dijkstra et al., 2013).

Prior studies have offered divergent characterizations of the various dimensions of jealousy, especially with regard to individuals who are engaged in romantic relationships. For instance, Pfeiffer and Wong (1989) characterized jealousy as incorporating behavioral (partner surveillance activities), cognitive (appraisal of threats or suspicions), and affective (negative emotions experienced due to perceived threats) dimensions. Utz and Beukeboom (2011) also discussed different forms of jealousy – namely, reactive, anxious and possessive. While reactive jealousy results from an actual threat arising out of any form of infidelity, anxious and possessive forms of jealousy may arise out of a perceived threat that causes rumination and monitoring behavior, respectively. Dainton and Stokes (2015) posited that individuals might also experience cognitive and emotional types of situational jealousy in romantic relationships due to the inherent uncertainty of such relationships. In addition, Frampton and Fox (2018) distinguished between the concepts of retrospective and retroactive jealousy. Retrospective jealousy is directed at a rival who threatened a current relationship in the past, while retroactive jealousy is evoked by an individual's focus on his or her partner's previous relationship(s) (Frampton and Fox, 2018).

Prior research indicates that jealousy is associated with a mixture of emotions, including disgust (Muscanell and Guadagno, 2016), betrayal (Daspe et al., 2018), resentment (Dunn and Ward, 2020), sadness (Macapagal et al., 2016), threat and anger (Dijkstra et al., 2013), and envy (Miller et al., 2014). Further, Dunn and Ward (2020) suggested that jealousy incorporates the direction of an individual's emotions, such as distrust or resentment toward their partner/significant other due to suspected infidelity and/or romantic contact with a rival. Scholars have also characterized jealousy as a multifactorial phenomenon that encompasses various forms of behavioral reactions – for example, violence (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018) and thoughts and actions that may affect the quality or stability of a relationship (Moyano et al., 2017).

Thus, we extend prior definitions of jealousy to the context of SMPs. We propose that SoMJ may be understood as the “jealousy experienced by an individual due to a potential threat (perceived or actual) of the loss or deterioration of a romantic relationship due specifically to their partner's or spouse's use of and activities undertaken on SMPs, especially if such activities involve a potential rival for extra-dyadic, romantic attention.”

There seems to be an overlap between the concepts of jealousy and envy, which are often used interchangeably in the general vernacular (Dijkstra et al., 2013). Scholars argue that despite their similarities, jealousy and envy differ. Chung and Harris (2018) suggested that jealousy and envy may be driven by different emotional processes and perhaps even different motivations. Kristjánsson (2016) argued that envy is considered to be a distinct emotion that relates to an individual's desire to attain an object of attention that is deemed to be absent from his or her life. Similarly, Dijkstra et al. (2013) suggested that envy is related to two people, thus suggesting a duality of interaction. In contrast, jealousy is described as the fear of losing an already obtained person or relationship to another person and creates a triangle of potential interaction (Kristjánsson, 2016; Dijkstra et al., 2013). Therefore, we concur that envy and jealousy are distinct emotional states (Chung and Harris, 2018). The present study focuses solely on SoMJ.

2.2 Social media features: the potential to evoke jealousy

The extant research suggests that social media may affect an individual's experience with jealousy, and multiple studies have aimed to understand the association between social media and jealousy. In their seminal study, Muise et al. (2014) measured Facebook jealousy as a singular dimension that may be characterized as a form of trait jealousy (Cohen et al., 2014). Social media has been described as a complex tool and environment for initiating and maintaining communication with partners (Fleuriet et al., 2014). Scholars suggest that some aspects of social media can assist individuals in maintaining interpersonal (e.g., romantic) relationships (Dainton and Stokes, 2015) and facilitating peer interactions (Rueda et al., 2015). For instance, indicating one's relationship status on social media may be interpreted as a public display of affection and an announcement of the exclusivity of the relationship within one's social circle (Orosz et al., 2015). This has been referred to as going “Facebook official,” which has previously been linked to relational satisfaction (Seidman et al., 2019). Similarly, SMPs may also assist individuals in maintaining long-distance relationships by allowing virtual proximity despite geographical distance (Billedo et al., 2015).

SMPs, such as Facebook, also have certain features that may contribute to an enhanced perception of jealousy-inducing threats. According to Muscanell and Guadagno (2016), the public (i.e., transparent) and permanent nature of the information that is present on SMPs may have significant ramifications for inducing jealousy, which is contingent on users' motivation and usage of these platforms. SMPs, like Facebook, may create an environment with limited privacy (Iqbal and Jami, 2019) and have the potential to induce unrestrained flirtatious behavior (Brem et al., 2015). User-specific settings for privacy and content sharing have also been implicated for their potential to evoke negative emotions, such as jealousy, and behavioral responses (e.g., Muscanell and Guadagno, 2016; Muscanell et al., 2013). Furthermore, prior studies indicate that acontextual (Muise et al., 2009) and ambiguous information on SMPs may increase partner-monitoring or surveillance behaviors (Muscanell and Guadagno, 2016). In fact, SMPs are considered to provide individuals with a socially acceptable form of monitoring their partners' activities (Brem et al., 2015; Muise et al., 2014). Such monitoring may occur through multiple modes, such as sharing passwords (Bevan, 2018), reviewing photos shared by partners or friends (Halpern et al., 2017), and accepting new SMP friend requests (Carpenter, 2016). Similarly, it has been suggested that other aspects of SMPs, such as the use of nonverbal cues (e.g., emoticons), also evoke jealousy (Daspe et al., 2018).

Consequently, it can be argued that social media can have a dual effect on relational maintenance and quality by influencing an individual's experience with jealousy. In the context of Facebook, Altakhaineh and Alnamer (2018) explained that such platforms can help users maintain continual connections with close as well as distant relationships but also have the capacity to evoke suspicion and jealousy in romantic relationships. Additionally, such an impact may differ in its emergent form due to gender (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018), personality (Seidman, 2019) and even cross-cultural differences (Iqbal and Jami, 2017; Zandbergen and Brown, 2015). This contradictory nature of the possible impact of Facebook on social relationships has been referred to as the “Facebook paradox” (Altakhaineh and Alnamer, 2018). Due to the evidentiary link between SoMJ and the posited adverse effects on marriages (Starks, 2019) and romantic relationships – for example, through intimate partner violence (Brem et al., 2015) – we argue for an urgent need to better understand the association between social media use and jealousy. Consequently, newer empirical investigations are required to bridge the existing gaps in the literature. However, this will first require an understanding of the current scope and boundaries of the previously investigated associations. Thus, it is necessary to identify the existing gaps and the scope of future research on this topic. The current SLR study aims to address these gaps by presenting the thematic areas of prior research, identifying gaps, and outlining agendas for future research based on identified gaps.

3.1 Article search and selection

The review process began with the identification of appropriate search terms and databases, as well as the subsequent determination of search syntaxes. Jealousy is a multifaceted construct (Kristjánsson, 2016), and SMPs have been investigated in the context of multiple disciplines, including psychology, information technology, sociology, and medical science (Fox and Moreland, 2015). Consequently, the current study considered four databases from which to select the relevant literature: Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), PsycINFO and PubMed. These were determined to provide appropriate coverage of the literature (Sigerson and Cheng, 2018). The concept of SMP-induced jealousy was seminally conceptualized in 2009 (Muise et al., 2009). Therefore, to synthesize a decade of academic attention to the association between social media and jealousy, the review process considered all the relevant articles published between 2009 and 2019. The databases were searched in December 2019 using the keyword “jealousy” in conjunction with “social media,” “social networking,” and “SNS.” In addition, the specific names of SMPs – namely, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, Twitter, WeChat and Weibo – were utilized in the search.

The initial search identified 121 results, which were reviewed to remove duplicates. Subsequently, following specific inclusion and exclusion criteria, 45 original studies were identified for further review (see Figure 1) and assessed for quality and appropriateness. At this stage, five studies were removed because they were considered inappropriate either due to a lack of empirical focus on jealousy or insufficient discussion of the associations and findings. To complete the feedback loop, backward and forward citations were conducted for the 40 remaining studies. Over 700 studies, which had been referenced by or referred to an article, were reviewed using a backward and forward citation search, which led to the addition of five studies to the final data set. To ensure the robustness of the review process, citation chaining was performed, as well as a subsequently curated data set, as suggested by the methodological literature (Tranfield et al., 2003; Webster and Watson, 2002). The selection process was reviewed by two coauthors at each stage to ensure the comprehensiveness of the overall process. Subsequently, 45 studies were identified as appropriate for further analysis; these constitute the final data set for this study (see Table 1).

3.2 RQ1. Research status and profile

The curated data set of 45 empirical studies was analyzed to determine the status of the research on understanding the association between social media and jealousy. Since 2009, the publication trend shows increasing scholarly attention being focused on the examination of SoMJ (see Figure 2), but this attention has been concentrated primarily on Facebook as the platform of investigation (68.9% of studies; see Table 1). Further, the data set was analyzed to understand the geographic scope of prior studies, which suggests that studies have focused primarily on examining SoMJ in the context of developed nations, such as the US (n = 22), the United Kingdom (n = 3), Canada (n = 3), and the Netherlands (n = 3), while significantly less attention has been paid to the context of developing nations, such as Pakistan (n = 2), the United Arab Emirates (n = 1), and Turkey (n = 1). Additionally, from a cultural perspective, it may be said that the current understanding of this phenomenon is skewed toward research originating from more individualistic cultures, with a lack of studies focusing on more community-oriented, collectivist cultures. The leading journals in terms of publication productivity are Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking (n = 7), Computers in Human Behavior (n = 5), Evolutionary Psychological Science (n = 2), Journal of Social and Personal Relationships (n = 2) and Personal Relationships (n = 2). Finally, word clouds were generated for titles and author as well as indexed keywords of select studies to identify focal research issues. The word clouds suggested that SoMJ has primarily been studied in the context of romantic relationships with Facebook as the platform, as the dominant keywords identified from the figures included “social,” “jealousy,” “Facebook,” “romantic,” “relationships” and “media.”

4.1 Theoretical and methodological grounding of the SoMJ concept

The concept of jealousy in the context of SMPs has primarily been relegated to the characterization of Facebook jealousy, as proposed by Muise et al. (2009). Few recent studies have utilized additional theoretical approaches to examine the association between social media and jealousy; these include White and Mullen's jealousy model (Carpenter, 2016) and the cognitive theory of jealousy (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018). Concurrently, extant literature has witnessed the incorporation of multiple frameworks and theoretical lenses, wherein certain theories have witnessed more usage. For instance, attachment theory (Bretherton, 1992) has been used by Chang (2019) and Fleuriet et al. (2014), the parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972) has been used by Dunn and Ward (2020), and the model of relationship investment (Rusbult, 1980) has been used by Drouin et al. (2014) (see Table 1). These frameworks are broadly aimed at understanding how individuals form bonds with others, using evaluative measures of relational satisfaction or gender-based differences in their interactions. However, other viewpoints, such as the evolutionary perspective of gender differences (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018) and the uncertainty reduction theory (Stewart et al., 2014), have also been used sporadically to delineate the differential effect of parameters such as relational satisfaction.

Previous researchers have also considered other theories in an attempt to delineate the influence of individual factors, such as personality, usage motives and goals, on the association between social media and jealousy. Such theories include the uses and gratifications framework (Dainton and Stokes, 2015), five-factor personality model (Seidman, 2019), self-selection hypothesis (Iqbal and Jami, 2019), goal cognition theory (Chang, 2019), belongingness/connection framework (Seidman et al., 2019) and the theory of motivated information management (Frampton and Fox, 2018). Recent studies have begun to use the general theory of addiction to investigate the association between jealousy and the excessive use of SMPs (Holmgren and Coyne, 2017). For instance, Seidman et al. (2019) examined the association between social media and jealousy in the context of needs that may encourage pathological SMP use, such as the need for popularity.

In terms of research design and methodology, few studies in the SLR pool have included dyadic forms of investigation (e.g., Marshall et al., 2013), which may assist in understanding the connotations of this association from a partner's perspective through frameworks such as the actor–partner interdependence model (Daspe et al., 2018). Further, the majority of the current knowledge in this field has been derived from survey and experiment-based research designs (see Table 1), which may be inherently subject to limitations, such as social desirability bias (Halpern et al., 2017) and inability to establish causal effect (Chang, 2019).

4.2 Sociodemographic differences

The extant literature presents evidence of demographic differences in the evaluation of social media content; the use of SMP information for relationship initiation (van Ouytsel et al., 2016); and the subsequently evoked negative emotions, such as jealousy (Altakhaineh and Alnamer, 2018). Prior research has examined the influence of gender (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018; Dunn and Billett, 2018), age (Altakhaineh and Alnamer, 2018; Demirtaş-Madran, 2018) and culture (Zandbergen and Brown, 2015) on an individual's experience of SoMJ. Sociodemographic factors present an interesting area of inquiry because they can potentially influence the mechanisms through which SoMJ may develop or increase in intensity (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018).

The divergence in prior knowledge on SoMJ is especially evident in terms of gender-based differences. Studies conducted by Baker and Carreño (2016) and Lucero et al. (2014) suggest that there is a distinct difference in the effect of social media cues on male and female experiences of jealousy. Similarly, Demirtaş-Madran (2018) discuss that gender differences may exist with regard to the type of jealousy experienced – that is, emotional or sexual – due to social media-associated cues but found none in terms of the level of jealousy experienced. This finding partially supports the additional research that found that males may show a higher response toward perceived sexual jealousy. In contrast, higher jealousy levels are evoked in women who perceive emotional infidelity in their partners' social media activities (Dunn and Billett, 2018). Similarly, gender differences have been posited in terms of the intensity of experienced jealousy (Marshall et al., 2013), type of negative emotion felt by women vis-à-vis men (Muscanell et al., 2013), and behavioral response to the experienced emotion, for example–partner monitoring (Muise et al., 2014).

The literature reviewed for the SLR also suggests that age, stage of individual development, level of immersive exposure to social media communication patterns, and norms may create individual differences in SMP use. This may, in turn, affect the determination of the threshold criteria for determining the perception of cyber abuse, social media surveillance, or partner monitoring (Baker and Carreño, 2016). For instance, Altakhaineh and Alnamer (2018) found that older users may not be well versed in the different multimodal affordances of social media, which could explain their differing thresholds for defining inappropriate social media behavior. Additionally, van Ouytsel et al. (2016) pointed out differences between adults' and adolescents' use of SMP content for relationship initiation through the findings of their study.

Culture and ethnicity are important factors that may explain individual differences in social media use and the subsequent experience of jealousy. According to Demirtaş-Madran (2018), culture may be a universal influence with respect to jealousy. Zandbergen and Brown (2015) found that culture exerted a significant influence on jealousy experienced due to sexual infidelity and its form of expression. Similarly, Dijkstra et al. (2013) suggested the potential influence of societal norms on behavioral responses evoked by jealousy, such as higher aggression and violence by males. The SLR suggests that the extant knowledge rests primarily on the study of Caucasian respondents (e.g., Seidman, 2019; Frampton and Fox, 2018). Ethnic considerations may influence use patterns of Internet and Communication Technology (ICT, Rueda et al., 2015) and dynamics of a relationship (Demirtaş-Madran 2018), such as intimate partner violence, social media surveillance or romantic gestures. The fact that the evocation of jealousy is a process that may have cultural and ethnic distinctions, e.g. in of retroactive jealousy (Frampton and Fox, 2018), may explain evident differences in prior findings.

4.3 Antecedents

The prior literature has identified multiple factors that may affect the origin, intensity, and impact of SoMJ on an individual. These factors, referred to as antecedents of SoMJ, are delineated into four dimensions: the individual, his or her partner, relationship, and platform affordances.

4.4 Consequences

Prior research has investigated a multitude of consequences of SoMJ that relate to individuals' emotional and behavioral responses. Based on the review, we posit that these consequences may be broadly categorized as relational and psychological. Regarding the psychological effect, prior research has indicated that individuals who are afflicted by SoMJ could experience negative emotions (Fleuriet et al., 2014), such as depression (Holmgren and Coyne, 2017) and feelings of inferiority (Altakhaineh and Alnamer, 2018). According to Fox and Moreland (2015), such emotions may be amplified due to an individual's propensity to engage in social comparisons. Furthermore, Dunn and Billett (2018) found that evolutionary psychology can be a foundation for understanding the direction in which such negative emotions may be vented. For instance, Holmgren and Coyne (2017) found that in a jealousy-inducing scenario, an individual's direction of comparison may affect the intensity of his or her subsequently experienced depression.

With respect to relational consequences, the review suggests that SoMJ presents a duality of connotations, which may be either positive or negative.

5.1 Theoretical and methodological grounding

Regarding theoretical foundations, we posit that the majority of SoMJ research has drawn from the field of psychology and there is a gap in introspecting SoMJ from the perspectives of other allied fields, such as social behavior, information systems science and communication studies. For instance, scholars may benefit from understanding how the nature and interactivity of content posted on SMPs contribute to the development of SoMJ. Scholars may utilize theories such as media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1983) and interactivity theory (Voorveld et al., 2013) for this purpose. Further, we argue that the conceptualization of SoMJ may benefit from its examination in light of other correlates of the dark side of social media use, such as trolling (Baccarella et al., 2018) and the fear of missing out (Frampton and Fox, 2018). Thus, scholars may also adopt recently developed theories on social media research, such as the honeycomb framework of social media (Baccarella et al., 2018; Talwar et al., 2020b).

Regarding methodological advancements, future studies may adopt more objective data collection processes and research designs, such as observational studies, to examine actual instances of jealousy – that is, the natural habitat of the phenomenon. Additionally, chronemics and social media use frequency have been implicated in earlier research as potential influences on the association between social media and jealousy (Fleuriet et al., 2014). Thus, we suggest that future studies may also adopt longitudinal research designs to elucidate the influence of both time and variations in social media usage patterns on jealousy. The current study presents the following RQs that can guide the line of inquiry in future studies:

5.2 Sociodemographic differences

In terms of the limitations of prior research, this review suggests a limited examination of the associations between SoMJ, age, culture, and ethnicity. In comparison, prior research has found significant differences between males vis-à-vis females with respect to SoMJ experiences. However, future researchers may extend the current scope of knowledge regarding the influence of gender on SoMJ by examining whether males and females experience different intensities of emotions associated with jealousy, such as anger or sadness. This could also assist in refining the conceptualization of SoMJ as a distinct phenomenon.

It is difficult to present generalizations regarding age-related differences with respect to SoMJ because the extant literature has focused primarily on young or emerging adults (aged 18–29 years; see Table 1). Future research may focus on understanding this phenomenon across different age groups, such as adolescent, adult, and mature SMP users. For instance, studies could be directed toward explicating potential differences in the acceptable thresholds for SMP use behavior for adolescents, young adults, and adults. Future research may also be geared toward understanding the association between SMP use and the experience of platonic forms of SoMJ directed against peers or family members. Scholars may also attempt to use the concept of chronemics (Fleuriet et al., 2014) to understand whether SoMJ is associated with time spent by different age groups on various activities, such as photo sharing or surveilling partners' activities.

Culture and ethnicity are under-investigated factors in the context of SoMJ. Few studies have attempted to understand the role of culture and acculturation in the evocation of SoMJ (e.g. Zandbergen and Brown, 2015). Additionally, this SLR suggests that a limited examination of the SoMJ phenomenon in the context of ethnic groups other than Caucasian should be undertaken (Moyano et al., 2017; Rueda et al., 2015). Consequently, we argue that there is an imperative need to develop a multiethnic, cross-cultural understanding of the influence of social media on jealousy (Demirtaş-Madran, 2018; Nongpong and Charoensukmongkol, 2016; Rueda et al., 2015; Zandbergen and Brown, 2015). For instance, future studies may investigate whether cultural or ethnic norms moderate or mediate the association between SMP use and SoMJ. Additionally, we argue that cultural or ethnic norms may affect individuals' personal values, as well as their evaluations of the importance and expectations from a relationship (Iqbal and Jami, 2019). We suggest that current knowledge about SoMJ may benefit from the incorporation of value-based frameworks. Understanding how individuals value relationships (Chung and Harris, 2018), as well as the interplay between their personal values and relational maintenance strategies, may further elucidate the mechanisms that lead to SoMJ. We have proposed the following broad RQs to be answered in future studies:

5.3 The antecedents of SoMJ

Distinct gaps can be delineated in the extant body of knowledge in terms of the antecedents of SoMJ, which are discussed below.

5.4 The consequences of SoMJ

The extant knowledge is limited regarding the examination of how the emotions associated with SoMJ, such as anger, sadness and betrayal, may be directed at the self, partner, or rival. There is a need to further investigate the direction and intensity of the emotions that are felt by individuals experiencing SoMJ. Such an understanding may assist researchers in elucidating the mechanism of effect through which jealousy may affect the psychological state of the partner and/or rival. However, the review also suggests that with regard to married (or engaged) individuals, the association between social media and jealousy is under-researched. In fact, previous studies have considered relationship length as a control variable (Seidman, 2019; Seidman et al., 2019; Halpern et al., 2017), and relatively few studies have investigated commitment as a predictor (Drouin et al., 2014; Marshall et al., 2013). We posit the need for a more detailed assessment of the intensity and length of commitment with regards to SoMJ. For instance, the influence of relationship length and commitment on SoMJ may be explored for individuals who are married, engaged, or in a long-term civil union.

Based on the discussions of the negative connotations of SoMJ, we argue that researchers need to understand the prevalence of such negative effects in both online and offline contexts. We also posit the need to understand the mechanisms that individuals use to cope with such negative effects, especially in the cases in which their emotions may trigger aggressive or violent responses. Additionally, Frampton and Fox (2018) discussed the influence of retrospective jealousy on individuals. Based on their findings, we question whether SoMJ may also cause individuals to showcase negative behaviors toward their previous partners. Further, the SLR suggests a distinct gap in the current knowledge regarding the continual impact, if any, of jealousy on individual behavior after the dissolution of a relationship. It may be interesting to understand whether such impacts are connected to other correlates of the dark side of social media, such as malicious gossiping, trolling, and cyberstalking. The question of whether individuals' personal values influence their actions may also be significant.

We also posit the need to expand the current conceptual boundaries of this domain by examining the potential of SMPs to induce platonic forms of jealousy as a negative consequence. Such non-romantic forms of jealousy may be induced among peers, siblings, or family members due to a perceived lack of attention from an individual (Chung and Harris, 2018; Hart, 2010) over either SMPs or the potential translation of SoMJ into offline interactions – for example, actions against a partner in the offline world. Thus, the following questions may potentially be explicated in future research:

5.5 The SoMJ framework: a theoretical comprehension

The SLR highlights the complex nature of the relationships governing the concept of SoMJ, which transcends the boundaries and intricacies of offline relationships among individuals to encompass the influence of SMP affordances and perceived rivals in the digital environment. Based on the gaps and future agendas detailed in the previous sections, we propose the SoMJ framework (Figure 3), which emphasizes the need to adopt more sophisticated research approaches to advance conceptual knowledge of SoMJ and investigate the hitherto under-explored associations of SoMJ with variables related to (1) SMPs, (2) incumbent actors (the individual, partner and rival) and (3) relational parameters.

Conceptual advancement is the foremost SoMJ-related issue that researchers need to address. It would be beneficial to explore whether SoMJ is a new form of jealousy that has been relegated to the SMP environs or a corollary to relational activities, such as partner monitoring. The SLR indicates the need to explore the emotional components of SoMJ and its correlation with non-romantic forms of jealousy, such as peer and familial jealousy. To resolve the existing inconsistencies in the conceptualization of SoMJ, future research may be directed toward examining whether these forms and components of SoMJ differ from its traditional characterization.

Methodological improvements in conjunction with conceptual advancement are needed to generate more definitive and generalizable insights into SoMJ as a distinct phenomenon. For instance, a larger and more diverse respondent base may be studied to investigate the emergence of SoMJ. In addition, individuals with varied sexual orientations, ages, relational statuses, and cultural backgrounds, should be examined over longer periods to understand how SoMJ emerges and evolves. Researchers may gather objective data through more mixed method–based research designs to garner deeper and more quantitatively verifiable insights into the interactive association between SMPs and SoMJ.

Specific SMP affordances, such as particular linguistic cues or cross-platform features, and their correlations with SoMJ need to be researched. Further, scholars may examine whether and how SoMJ correlates with issues related to the dark side of social media, such as the fear of missing out, cyberstalking, and social comparison. These issues may make individuals more pliable and vulnerable to influence by acontextual or ambiguous content that is shared on SMPs. They should therefore be investigated in the context of SoMJ.

Incumbent actors – that is, the individual, partner and perceived rival – should be examined to explicate their roles in the development and differential experiences of SoMJ. The role of the rival is significantly under-explored in SoMJ research. Scholars may focus on exploring SMP actions or the intensity of pursuit of actual/perceived rivals toward individuals, as well as the emotions directed toward such rivals by individuals and their partners. It is also imperative to examine the issues that may influence an individual's psychological or emotional states, such as usage motives, past experiences and personal values. In addition, researchers should explore whether individuals' experiences of SoMJ are affected by their partners' SMP activities, personalities, or behavioral/emotional responses, and vice versa.

Relational parameters may also be explored by future scholars, especially through dyadic investigations. For example, scholars may benefit from understanding individuals' specific purposes for using SMPs, especially if they are being utilized as tracking or monitoring platforms for relational surveillance. Concurrently, we posit the need to investigate whether relational maintenance behaviors, such as monitoring and interpersonal communication, share a temporally reciprocal or symbiotic relationship (Carpenter, 2016; Muise et al., 2009).

Finally, researchers may benefit from understanding the role of moderator variables in influencing SoMJ associations. Based on the SLR, we posit the potential moderating influence of cultural, ethnic, and sociodemographic factors on the creation and effect of SoMJ. We further urge scholars to investigate other variables that may indirectly affect SoMJ in a moderating or mediating capacity.

6.1 Theoretical implications

This study has five primary implications for the theoretical advancement of research on SoMJ. First, it makes a significant contribution to the assimilation and analysis of the fragmented knowledge regarding the associations of SoMJ that have been empirically investigated in prior research. In presenting a comprehensive overview of the extant literature, this study creates a singular platform for understanding the intellectual structure of SoMJ-related research.

Second, the SLR explicates the multidimensional nature of SoMJ by delineating its association with SMP affordances and a triad of actors (partner, individual and rival). The study further speculates on the possibility of this concept being a correlate of the dark side of social media. It suggests that there is a need to understand SoMJ's associations with other correlates of the dark side of social media that influence individual states and responses in terms of both emotions and behaviors. This could advance the current knowledge of the operational mechanism of effect through which SoMJ impacts the individual psyche.

Third, the SLR draws attention to the current characterization of jealousy in the context of social media. The findings suggest that there is a need to examine the possible platonic and familial forms of jealousy that may also be induced among SMP users. Thus, this study makes a significant contribution by identifying potential avenues to expound upon the conceptual boundaries of SoMJ.

Fourth, by elucidating the extant knowledge gaps, the findings present several subthemes and topics that require further scholarly attention. Future researchers can use these topics and subthemes to construct and validate more advanced frameworks to examine SoMJ holistically. The findings also suggest that there is a need for methodological improvements, and this study can provide researchers with a point of navigation for adopting novel research designs and approaches.

The fifth contribution is the proposed framework, which details the under-investigated associations of SoMJ. This framework provides a foundation to advance knowledge of the mechanism of effect through which SMPs may induce jealousy among users. We underscore the need to incorporate the perspective of linguistics into this field of research as social media communication may have distinctive patterns and connotations of communication.

6.2 Practical implications

This study has four significant implications for the users, designers, and managers of SMPs. The findings may also be valuable for clinicians, such as psychologists, who work with individuals and couples who are dealing with the experiences and consequences of SoMJ. First, an important finding for SMP designers and managers is that SoMJ should not be considered a solely individual-level issue; rather, it is important to scrutinize the role of users' personal social networks in relation to SoMJ. For example, the use of text mining or sentiment analysis of social media activity and shared content can be helpful in identifying individuals who are potentially afflicted by jealousy or its consequences.

Second, as a result of this study, individuals who are engaged in SMP community management (i.e., SMP managers or team members who are engaged with help or safety centers established on SMPs to ensure appropriate communication and platform usage) may gain significant insights into the concept, antecedents, and consequences of SoMJ. Their understanding of SoMJ will allow them to identify and raise awareness about the potential indications of its negative consequences that may be evident in individuals' social media activities. It may also assist community managers and SMP designers in updating user policies and guidelines for the safe usage of SMPs. Such guidelines may act as a deterrent for individuals who are experiencing SoMJ and contemplating behavioral responses that are harmful or even violent toward partners or rivals.

Third, we maintain that an increased understanding of SoMJ may help users identify thresholds for acceptable SMP behavior. The findings can be used to raise awareness regarding the thresholds at which the perceivably harmless antecedents of SoMJ, such as partner monitoring, may transition into potentially harmful consequences, such as cyber abuse. This could serve as a protective measure against the adverse effects of SoMJ.

Finally, our findings provide clinicians with a synthesis of the current state of the art regarding social media and jealousy. The findings will allow clinicians to develop a holistic understanding of SoMJ and its potential correlation with other negative behaviors associated with the dark side of social media, such as trolling, stalking, and the fear of missing out. Consequently, this will allow clinicians to develop interventions to educate the public about the myriad ways in which SMPs and users' behaviors may affect their social and familial relationships. More specifically, clinicians will also be better equipped to develop specific interventions for managing the effects of technology – especially social media – on individuals' intimate and romantic relationships. This could, in turn, raise targeted awareness in the familial and social groups of an individual, thereby helping to identify the emergence of SoMJ in the individual's life or helping him or her to cope with its negative effects.

6.3 Limitations and future work

This study was limited by certain methodological choices. First, we focused solely on assimilating empirical knowledge related to social media and jealousy and excluded articles published as conceptual and narrative reviews. Second, to keep the scope of the review manageable, we excluded any conference publications and theses, which may have limited the thematic contexts, antecedents and consequences identified during this review. Third, we focused on the literature available in the Scopus, WoS, PubMed and PsycINFO databases up to December 2019, excluding studies that may have been published since January 2020. Studies published in other databases, such as ProQuest and EBSCO, were also excluded. Finally, we excluded trade journals and core medical journals that may have published articles related to social media and jealousy. Nonetheless, despite these limitations, the study makes a significant stride in advancing the theoretical understanding of SoMJ as a phenomenon. Future scholars may improve the scope of this SLR by reviewing other databases, such as EBSCO, and other forms of publications, such as conceptual or review articles, theses, and monographs, using different or more inclusive search terms. Further, new studies, especially those published in trade journals, and other fields of study, such as psychiatry, may be reviewed to update the reported research profile and thematic trends.