Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Price of Mistrust: A Study into the Working Alliance as Predictor for Recidivism

  • Published:
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The responsivity principle is a vital element in the risk-need-responsivity model. The working alliance is a good illustration of the intention of this responsivity principle. In this study, we examine the influence of the working alliance (WAMCI) between 199 offenders and probation officers on recidivism. Data for this longitudinal study originate from adult probation services in the Netherlands. The association between the working alliance factors and recidivism was analyzed using a Cox regression. Offenders who reported more Trust in the relationship with their Probation Officer after 9 months community supervision showed less recidivism in the subsequent 4-year follow-up period. This association remained significant when controlled for criminal history, age, gender, ethnicity, family status, employment and addiction problems. Offenders who reported more reactance showed significantly more recidivism in the follow-up period, but this association was accounted for criminal history variables. These results can be regarded as an extension of the responsivity principle; a trusting relationship may be needed to create a space in which the client becomes engaged in a changing process.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The analysis was conducted with multiple imputation for the missing data. Five datasets were created, yielding five different χ2 values with p values. We report here the range of χ2 values and p values.

References

  • Andrews DA, Bonta J (2010) The psychology of criminal conduct, 5th edn. Lexisnexis, New Providence, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Blasko BL, Friedmann PD, Rhodes AG, Taxman FS (2015) The Parolee-Parole officer relationship as a mediator of criminal justice outcomes. Crim Justice Behav 42(7):722–740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonta J, Blais J, Wilson HA (2014) A theoretically informed meta-analysis of the risk for general and violent recidivism for mentally disordered offenders. Aggress Violent Beh 19(3):278–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bordin ES, (1979) The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory Res Pract 16(3):252–260

  • Bourgon G, Bonta J (2014) Reconsidering the responsivity principle: a way to move forward. Fed Probat 78:66–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourgon G, Guttierez L (2013) The importance of building good relationships in community corrections: evidence, theory and practice of the therapeutic alliance. In: Ugwudike, P. & Raynor, P. (Eds) What Works in Offender Compliance International Perspectives and Evidence-Based Practice. New York: Palgrave MacMillan

  • Braucht G (2009) The fundamental “what works” principle: responsivity. Corrections Today 108–109

  • Brocato J, Wagner EF (2008) Predictors of retention in an alternative-to-prison substance abuse treatment program. Crim Justice Behav 35(1):99–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun S (2018) The clinician-patient working alliance: is it a significant predictor of psychiatric medication adherence in a sample of recently released parolees? Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 29:782–793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caudy MS, Durso JM, Taxman FS (2013) How well do dynamic needs predict recidivism? Implications for risk assessment and risk reduction. J Crim Just 41:458–466

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas KS, Hart SD, Webster CD, Belfrage H (2013) HCR-20V3: assessing risk of violence – user guide. Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada

    Google Scholar 

  • Florsheim P, Shotorbani SW, Guest-Warnick G, Barrat T, Hwang WC (2000) Role of the working alliance in the treatment of delinquent boys in community-based programs. J Clin Child Psychol 29(1):94–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flückiger C, Del Re AC, Wampold BE, Horvath AO (2018) The alliance in adult psychotherapy: a meta-analytic synthesis. Psychotherapy 55(4):316–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Shelton RC, Hollon SD, Amsterdam JD, Gallop R (2009) Prediction of response to medication and cognitive therapy in the treatment of moderate to severe depression. J Consult Clin Psychol 77(4):775–787

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gendreau P, Little T, Goggin C (1996) A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: what works! Criminology 34(4):575–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green TC, Johnson J, Harrington M, Pouget ER, Rhodes AG, Taxman F, S.,... Friedmann, P. D. (2013) Parole Officer–parolee relationships and HIV risk behaviors during community supervision. AIDS Behavior 17:2667–2675

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grieger L, Hosser D (2012) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder does not predict criminal recidivism in young adult offenders: results from a prospective study. Int J Law Psychiatry 35(1):27–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson RK, Bourgon G, Helmus L, Hodgson S (2009) The principles of effective correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders. Crim Justice Behav 36(9):865–891

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart J, Collins K (2014) A ‘back to basics’ approach to offender supervision: does working alliance contribute toward success of probation? European Journal of Probation 6(2):112–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horvath AO, Del Re AC, Flückiger C, Symonds D (2011) Alliance in individual psychotherapy. In J. C. Norcross (Ed). Psychotherapy Relationships that Work Evidence Based Responsiveness. Retrieved from: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com

  • Horvath A, Greenberg L (1989) Development of the Working Alliance Inventory. In: Greenberg L, Pinsof W (eds) The psychotherapeutic process: a research handbook. Guilford Press, New York, NY, pp 529–556

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennealy PJ, Skeem JL, Manchak SM, Eno Louden J (2012) Firm, fair, and caring officer-offender relationships protect against supervision failure. Law Hum Behav 36(6):496–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koehler JA, Lösel F, Akoensi TD, Humphreys DK (2013) A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of young offender treatment programs in Europe. J Exp Criminol 9:19–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurleychek MC, Brame R, Bushway SD (2006) Scarlet letters and recidivism: does an old criminal record predict future offending. Criminol Public Policy 5:483–504

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langnan PA, Levin DJ (2002) Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994. Technical report, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics

  • Locke EA, Latham GP (1990) A theory of goal setting & task performance. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowenkamp CT, Pealer J, Smith P, Latessa EJ (2006) Adhering to the risk and need principles: does it matter for supervision-based programs? Fed Probat 70(3):3–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Lunenburg FC (2011) Goal-setting theory of motivation. International Journal of Management, Business and Administration 15:1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Morash M, Kashey DA, Smith SW, Cobbina JE (2016) The connection of Probation/Parole Officer actions to women offenders’ recidivism. Crim Justice Behav 43(4):506–524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polaschek DLL (2012) An appraisal of the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) model of offender rehabilitation and its application in correctional treatment. Leg Criminol Psychol 17:1–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polaschek DLL, Ross EC (2010) Do early therapeutic alliance, motivation and stages of change predict therapy change for high- risk, psychopathic violent prisoners? Crim Behav Ment Health 20(2):100–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prendergast ML, Pearson FS, Podus D, Hamilton ZK, Greenwell L (2013) The Andrews’ principles of risk, needs, and responsivity as applied in drug treatment programs: meta-analysis of crime and drug use outcomes. J Exp Criminol 9:275–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitz KR (2018) American exceptionalism in crime and punishment: broadly defined. Introductory Chapter from K. R. Reitz, (Ed.) American Exceptionalism in Crime and Punishment. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c50e/f55da57101d94cc19bf342b99cf7fea4b0c4.pdf

  • Ruhland EL (2020) Social worker, law enforcer, and now bill collector: probation officers’ collection of supervision fees. J Offender Rehabil 59(1):44–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serin RC, Chadwick N, Lloyd CD (2016) Dynamic risk and protective factors. Psychology, Crime & Law 22(1–2):151–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skeem JL, Eno Louden J, Polashek D, Camp J (2007) Assessing relationship quality in mandated community treatment: blending care with control. Psychol Assess 19(4):397–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Small SE, Torres S (2001) Arming Probation Officers: enhancing public confidence and officer safety. Fed Probat 65(3):24–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith P, Gendreau P, Swartz K (2009) Validating the principles of effective intervention: a systematic review of the contributions of meta-analysis in the field of corrections. Victims and Offenders 4:148–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm A, Menger A, De Vogel V, and Huibers MJH (2020a) Predictors of change of working alliance over the course of probation supervision: A Prospective Cohort Study. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 64(8):753–773. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x19878554

  • Sturm A, de Vogel V, Menger A, Huibers MJH (2020b) Changes in offender-rated working alliance in probation supervision as predictors of recidivism. Psychol Crime Law 27:182–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316x.2020.1793986

  • Sturm A, Donker A, De Vogel V, Menger A (2021) On the two-sided assessment of the working alliance: development of the working alliance of mandated clients inventory [Manuscript submitted for publication] Research Group Working with Mandated Clients, HU university of applied sciences

  • Tabachnick BG, Fidell LN (2013) Using multivariate statistics, 6th edn. Pearson, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Taxman F, Ainsworth S (2009) Correctional milieu: the key to quality outcomes. Victims & Offenders 4(4):334–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vieira TA, Skilling TA, Peterson-Badali M (2009) Matching court-ordered services with treatment needs: predicting treatment success with young offenders. Crim Justice Behav 36(4):385–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walters GD, Chlumsky ML (1993) The lifestyle criminality screening form and antisocial personality disorder: predicting release outcome in a state prison sample. Behav Sci Law 11(1):111–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wartna BSJ, Blom M, Tollenaar N (2011) De WODC-recidivemonitor. [The Dutch recidivism monitor]. (4th ed.) Den Haag, the Netherlands: WODC

  • Wild WE (2011) Probation officer role orientation, helping alliance, and probationer readiness for change: the impact on juvenile offender recidivism. PCOM Psychology Dissertations. Paper 197

  • Wooditch A, Tang LL, Taxman FS (2013) Which criminogenic need changes are most important in promoting desistance from crime and substance use? Crim Justice Behav 41(3):276–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youssef C (2017) The importance of the therapeutic alliance when working with men who have committed a sexual offence. J Crim Psychol 7(3):206–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The research was supported in part by the Nationaal Regieorgaan Praktijkgericht Onderzoek SIA (2014-01-87PRO).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. HU University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Annelies Sturm, Vivienne de Vogel & Anneke Menger

  2. Department of Clinical Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Marcus J. H. Huibers

Authors
  1. Annelies Sturm
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vivienne de Vogel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anneke Menger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marcus J. H. Huibers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Annelies Sturm.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standard.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sturm, A., de Vogel, V., Menger, A. et al. The Price of Mistrust: A Study into the Working Alliance as Predictor for Recidivism. J Police Crim Psych 37, 576–586 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-021-09450-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-021-09450-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation