Abstract
Scholars conceptualize entrepreneurial behavior (EB) as the actions taken for new venture creation, which are said to manifest from an individual’s intention to become an entrepreneur (EI). Though theoretically supported, predicting EB through EI faces many operationalization challenges, is rarely empirically reported, and presents methodological inconsistencies. Addressing these issues will improve our ability to identify emerging and successful new business venturers and facilitate further entrepreneurial stimulation of populations. Using both a cross-sectional and a 5-year longitudinal research design, we study the applicability of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) in explaining EI and EB for a sample of 1,149 Portuguese college students. The cross-sectional results support SCCT’s ability to explain students’ intentions in this large student population. Furthermore, with a smaller subsample, longitudinal analysis confirms intentions, as predictive of nascent EB, towards successful new business creation. In contrast to the theory’s propositions, we find that entrepreneurial self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations do not add to EI’s ability to predict EB. This study contributes to the currently scarce empirical support for SCCT as an appropriate model explaining EI and is the first to apply this theory’s core model to test the EI-EB link longitudinally. This study may be relevant to educators and policymakers who want to promote and assist college students in creating their own new businesses.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data from EEP Portugal Dataset, in which this study was based upon, may be provided upon request to the corresponding author.
Code availability
Not applicable.
Notes
Nascent entrepreneurs are defined as “individuals who initiate serious activities that are intended to lead to the formation of a viable new venture, but have not finally become legal business owners” (Zapkau et al. 2017, p. 56).
Following McGee’s et al. (2009) seminal article, all EFAs were performed via principal component analysis (PCA) extraction and varimax with Kaiser normalization as the rotation method.
Although some authors (e.g., McGee et al. 2009) have used a validation criterium of ‘at least two activities’ to identify a nascent entrepreneur, here, to be more confident of real nascent behavior, three activities were excluded from the previous list, as these did not meet the same standards as the rest in assuring the identification of dedicated/purposeful EB. Namely, the following activities were considered ineligible: (7) ‘Developed models’, (12) ‘Attended a ‘start your own business’ seminar or conference’ and (13) ‘Wrote a business plan or participated in seminars that focus on writing a business plan.’ To compensate for this reduced domain of eligible activities, it was considered sufficient for only one of all other nascent activities to be completed for someone to be identified as having behaved entrepreneurially.
References
Adam, A. F., & Fayolle, A. (2016). Can implementation intention help to bridge the intention–behaviour gap in the entrepreneurial process? An experimental approach. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 17(2), 80–88.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.
Ajzen, I. (2012). The theory of planned behavior. In P. Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 438–459). London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 471–499.
Audet, J. (2004). A longitudinal study of the entrepreneurial intentions of university students. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 10(1), 3–16.
Audretsch, D. B., Belitski, M., & Desai, S. (2015). Entrepreneurship and economic development in cities. The Annals of Regional Science, 55(1), 33–60.
Austin, M. J., & Nauta, M. M. (2016). Entrepreneurial role-model exposure, self-efficacy, and women’s entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Career Development, 43(3), 260–272.
Azen, R., & Sass, D. A. (2008). Comparing the squared multiple correlation coefficients of non-nested models: An examination of confidence intervals and hypothesis testing. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61(1), 163–178.
Bae, T. J., Qian, S., Miao, C., & Fiet, J. O. (2014). The relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: A meta-analytic review. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 217–254.
Bagozzi, R. P., Baumgartner, J., & Yi, Y. (1989). An investigation into the role of intentions as mediators of the attitude-behavior relationship. Journal of Economic Psychology, 10(1), 35–62.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Belchior, R. F. (2019). Determinants of entrepreneurial intentions & behavior: Social cognitive career theory test, new propositions and longitudinal analysis. Tese de doutoramento. Lisboa: ISCTE-University Institute of Lisbon.
Bird, B. (2015). Entrepreneurial intentions research: A review and outlook. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 13(3), 143–168.
Bird, B., & Jelinek, M. (1989). The operation of entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 13(2), 21–30.
Birley, S., & Westhead, P. (1994). A taxonomy of business start-up reasons and their impact on firm growth and size. Journal of Business Venturing, 9(1), 7–31.
Bogatyreva, K., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T. S., Osiyevskyy, O., & Shirokova, G. (2019). When do entrepreneurial intentions lead to actions? The role of national culture. Journal of Business Research, 96, 309–321.
Byrne, B. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. New York: Routledge.
Carter, N. M., Gartner, W. B., & Reynolds, P. D. (1996). Exploring start-up event sequences. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(3), 151–166.
Chen, L. (2013). IT entrepreneurial intention among college students: An empirical study. Journal of Information Systems Education, 24(3), 233–243.
Churchill, N. C., & Bygrave, W. D. (1990). The entrepreneurship paradigm (II): Chaos and catastrophes among quantum jumps? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 14(2), 7–30.
Coad, A., Segarra, A., & Teruel, M. (2016). Innovation and firm growth: Does firm age play a role? Research Policy, 45(2), 387–400.
Cordeiro, P. M., Paixão, M. P., Lens, W., Lacante, M., & Luyckx, K. (2015). Cognitive–motivational antecedents of career decision-making processes in Portuguese high school students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 90, 145–153.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334.
Davidsson, P., & Gordon, S. R. (2011). Panel studies of new venture creation: A methods-focused review and suggestions for future research. Small Business Economics, 39(4), 853–876.
Degeorge, J. M., & Fayolle, A. (2011). The entrepreneurial process trigger: A modelling attempt in the French context. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 18(2), 251–277.
Delanoë-Gueguen, S., & Liñán, F. (2019). A longitudinal analysis of the influence of career motivations on entrepreneurial intention and action. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 36(4), 527–543.
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. (1986). Bootstrap methods for standard errors, confidence intervals, and other measures of statistical accuracy. Statistical Science, 1(1), 54–75.
Esfandiar, K., Sharifi-Tehrani, M., Pratt, S., & Altinay, L. (2019). Understanding entrepreneurial intentions: A developed integrated structural model approach. Journal of Business Research, 94, 172–182.
Fayolle, A., & Liñán, F. (2014). The future of research on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 663–666.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382–388.
Gartner, W. B. (1988). “Who is an entrepreneur?” is the wrong question. American Journal of Small Business, 12(4), 11–32.
Gartner, W. B., Carter, N. M., & Reynolds, P. D. (2010). Entrepreneurial behavior: Firm organizing processes. In Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurship research (pp. 99–127). New York: Springer, New York.
Gieure, C., Benavides-Espinosa, M., & d. M., & Roig-Dobón, S. . (2020). The entrepreneurial process: The link between intentions and behavior. Journal of Business Research, 112, 541–548.
Goethner, M., Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Cantner, U. (2012). Scientists’ transition to academic entrepreneurship: Economic and psychological determinants. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(3), 628–641.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 141–185.
Guerrero, M., & Urbano, D. (2014). Academics’ start-up intentions and knowledge filters: An individual perspective of the knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 43(1), 57–74.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. A global perspective. New Jersey: Pearson.
Heuer, A., Aouni, Z., Pirnay, F., & Surlemont, B. (2009). The evolution of new venture creation intention: A longitudinal study. ICSB world conference (pp. 1–19). Washington: International Council for Small Business (ICSB). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/conference-papers-proceedings/evolution-new-venture-creationintention/docview/192412291/se-2?accountid=39066
Hills, G. E., & Singh, R. P. (2004). Opportunity recognition. In W. B. Gartner, K. G. Shaver, N. M. Carter, & P. D. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: The process of business creation (pp. 259–272). London: Sage Publications Inc.
Hirschi, A. (2013). Career decision making, stability, and actualization of career intentions: The case of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(4), 555–571.
Hui-Chen, C., Kuen-Hung, T., & Chen-Yi, P. (2014). The entrepreneurial process: An integrated model. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(4), 727–745.
Hulsink, W., & Rauch, A. (2010). The effectiveness of entrepreneurship education: A study on an intentions-based model towards behavior. ICSB world conference (pp. 1–25). Cincinnati: International Council for Small Business.
Ireland, R. D., & Webb, J. W. (2007). A cross-disciplinary exploration of entrepreneurship research. Journal of Management, 33(6), 891–927.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36.
Kautonen, T., van Gelderen, M., & Fink, M. (2015). Robustness of the theory of planned behavior in predicting entrepreneurial intentions and actions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 39(3), 655–674.
Kautonen, T., van Gelderen, M., & Tornikoski, E. T. (2013). Predicting entrepreneurial behaviour: A test of the theory of planned behaviour. Applied Economics, 45(6), 697–707.
Kenworthy, T. P., & McMullan, W. (2012). Importing theory (Summary). Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 32(20), Article 1.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Publications.
Kolvereid, L. (1996). Organizational employment versus self-employment: Reasons for career choice intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 20(3), 23–31.
Kolvereid, L., & Isaksen, E. (2006). New business start-up and subsequent entry into self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 21(6), 866–885.
Krueger, N. (2009). Entrepreneurial intentions are dead: Long live entrepreneurial intentions. In M. Brännback & A. L. Carsrud (Eds.), Understanding the entrepreneurial mind (pp. 51–72). New York: Springer, New York.
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5–6), 411–432.
Lanero, A., Vázquez, J. L., & Aza, C. L. (2016). Social cognitive determinants of entrepreneurial career choice in university students. International Small Business Journal, 34(8), 1053–1075.
Lanero, A., Vázquez, J. L., & Muñoz-Adánez, A. (2015). Un modelo social cognitivo de intenciones emprendedoras en estudiantes universitarios. Anales de Psicología, 31(1), 243–259.
Lent, R. W. (2005). A social cognitive view of career development and counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 101–127). Hoboken: Wiley.
Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2006). On conceptualizing and assessing social cognitive constructs in career research: A measurement guide. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(1), 12–35.
Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2019). Social cognitive career theory at 25: Empirical status of the interest, choice, and performance models. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, 103316.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79–122.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 36–49.
Lent, R. W., do CéuTaveira, M., Cristiane, V., Sheu, H. B., & Pinto, J. C. (2018). Test of the social cognitive model of well-being in Portuguese and Brazilian college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 109, 78–86.
Lent, R. W., do CéuTaveira, M., Cristiane, V., Sheu, H. B., & Pinto, J. C. (2018). Test of the social cognitive model of well-being in Portuguese and Brazilian college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 109, 78–86.
Lent, R. W., Ireland, G. W., Penn, L. T., Morris, T. R., & Sappington, R. (2017). Sources of self-efficacy and outcome expectations for career exploration and decision-making: A test of the social cognitive model of career self-management. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 99, 107–117.
Lent, R. W., Paixão, M. P., Silva, J. T., & d., & Leitão, L. M. . (2010). Predicting occupational interests and choice aspirations in Portuguese high school students: A test of social cognitive career theory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(2), 244–251.
Liguori, E. (2012). Extending social cognitive career theory into the entrepreneurship domain: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy’s mediating role between inputs, outcome expectations, and intentions. Doctoral Thesis. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College.
Liguori, E. W., Bendickson, J. S., & McDowell, W. C. (2018). Revisiting entrepreneurial intentions: A social cognitive career theory approach. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14(1), 67–78.
Liñán, F., & Fayolle, A. (2015). A systematic literature review on entrepreneurial intentions: Citation, thematic analyses, and research agenda. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 11(4), 907–933.
Liñán, F., & Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C. (2008). Temporal stability of entrepreneurial intentions: A longitudinal study. In 48th congress of the european regional science association (pp. 1–18). Liverpool, UK.
Liñán, F., & Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C. (2015). Assessing the stability of graduates’ entrepreneurial intention and exploring its predictive capacity. Academia Revista Latinoamericana de Administración, 28(1), 77–98.
Lucas, W. A., & Cooper, S. Y. (2012, November). Theories of entrepreneurial intention and the role of necessity. In Proceedings of the 35th ISBE Conference (pp. 7–8). Dublin, Ireland: Institute of Small Business and Entrepreneurship.
Malhotra, N. K., & Dash, S. (2011). Marketing research an applied orientation. London: Pearson Publishing.
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519–530.
Markman, G. D., Balkin, D. B., & Baron, R. A. (2002). Inventors and new venture formation: The effects of general self-efficacy and regretful thinking. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 27(2), 149–165.
McGee, J. E., Peterson, M., Mueller, S. L., & Sequeira, J. M. (2009). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: Refining the measure. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(4), 965–988.
McKenzie, B., Ugbah, S., & Smothers, N. (2007). “Who is an entrepreneur?” Is it still the wrong question? Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 13(1), 23–44.
Meoli, A., Fini, R., Sobrero, M., & Wiklund, J. (2020). How entrepreneurial intentions influence entrepreneurial career choices: The moderating influence of social context. Journal of Business Venturing, 35(3), 105982.
Mitchell, R. K., Busenitz, L., Lant, T., McDougall, P. P., Morse, E. A., & Smith, J. B. (2002). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial cognition: Rethinking the people side of entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 27(2), 93–104.
Mueller, R. O., & Hancock, G. R. (2008). Best practices in structural equation modeling. In J. W. Osborne (Ed.), Best practices in quantitative methods (pp. 488–508). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Neneh, B. N. (2019). From entrepreneurial alertness to entrepreneurial behavior: The role of trait competitiveness and proactive personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 138, 273–279.
Özyürek, R. (2005). Informative sources of math-related self-efficacy expectations and their relationship with math-related self-efficacy, interest, and preference. International Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 145–156.
Pfeifer, S., Šarlija, N., & Zekić Sušac, M. (2016). Shaping the entrepreneurial mindset: Entrepreneurial intentions of business students in croatia. Journal of Small Business Management, 54(1), 102–117.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
Reynolds, P. D., Carter, N. M., Gartner, W. B., & Greene, P. G. (2004). The prevalence of nascent entrepreneurs in the united states: Evidence from the panel study of entrepreneurial dynamics. Small Business Economics, 23(4), 263–284.
Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of entrepreneurial intent: A meta-analytic test and integration of competing models. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 291–332.
Schumacker, R., & Lomax, R. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. London: Routledge.
Segal, G., Borgia, D., & Schoenfeld, J. (2002). Using social cognitive career theory to predict self-employment goals. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 47–56.
Shane, S., Kolvereid, L., & Westhead, P. (1991). An exploratory examination of the reasons leading to new firm formation across country and gender. Journal of Business Venturing, 6(6), 431–446.
Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton, & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Shaver, K. G. (2010). The social psychology of entrepreneurial behavior. In Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurship research (pp. 359–385). New York: Springer, New York.
Shaver, K. G., & Scott, L. R. (1991). Person, process, choice: The psychology of new venture creation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 16(2), 23–46.
Sheeran, P., Orbell, S., & Trafimow, D. (1999). Does the temporal stability of behavioral intentions moderate intention-behavior and past behavior-future behavior relations? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(6), 724–734.
Sheppard, B. H., Hartwick, J., & Warshaw, P. R. (1988). The theory of reasoned action: A meta-analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(3), 325–343.
Sheu, H. B., Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., Miller, M. J., Hennessy, K. D., & Duffy, R. D. (2010). Testing the choice model of social cognitive career theory across Holland themes: A meta-analytic path analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(2), 252–264.
Shinnar, R. S., Hsu, D. K., Powell, B. C., & Zhou, H. (2018). Entrepreneurial intentions and start-ups: Are women or men more likely to enact their intentions? International Small Business Journal, 36(1), 60–80.
Shirokova, G., Osiyevskyy, O., & Bogatyreva, K. (2016). Exploring the intention–behavior link in student entrepreneurship: Moderating effects of individual and environmental characteristics. European Management Journal, 34(4), 386–399.
Shook, C. L., Priem, R. L., & McGee, J. E. (2003). Venture creation and the enterprising individual: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management, 29(3), 379–399.
Sommer, L. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour and the impact of past behaviour. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 10(1), 91–110.
Thompson, E. R. (2009). Individual entrepreneurial intent: Construct clarification and development of an internationally reliable metric. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(3), 669–694.
Van Gelderen, M., Kautonen, T., & Fink, M. (2015). From entrepreneurial intentions to actions: Self-control and action-related doubt, fear, and aversion. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(5), 655–673.
Vanevenhoven, J., & Liguori, E. (2013). The impact of entrepreneurship education: Introducing the entrepreneurship education project. Journal of Small Business Management, 51(3), 315–328.
Vázquez, J., Lanero, A., Gutiérrez, P., García, M., Alves, H., & Georgiev, I. (2010). Entrepreneurship education in the university: Does it make the difference? Trakia Journal of Sciences, 8(3), 64–70.
Walter, S. G., & Heinrichs, S. (2015). Who becomes an entrepreneur? A 30-years-review of individual-level research. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 22(2), 225–248.
Wang, X. (2013). Why students choose STEM majors: Motivation, high school learning, and postsecondary context of support. American Educational Research Journal, 50(5), 1081–1121.
Wennekers, S., & Thurik, R. (1999). Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics, 13(1), 27–56.
Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(5), 719–751.
Williams, L. J., Hartman, N., & Cavazotte, F. (2010). Method variance and marker variables: A review and comprehensive CFA marker technique. Organizational Research Methods, 13(3), 477–514.
Wright, S. L., Perrone-McGovern, K. M., Boo, J. N., & White, A. V. (2014). Influential factors in academic and career self-efficacy: Attachment, supports, and career barriers. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(1), 36–46.
Zapkau, F. B., Schwens, C., & Kabst, R. (2017). The role of prior entrepreneurial exposure in the entrepreneurial process: A review and future research implications. Journal of Small Business Management, 55(1), 56–86.
Zhao, H., Seibert, S. E., & Hills, G. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265–1272.
Zhao, H., Seibert, S. E., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2010). The relationship of personality to entrepreneurial intentions and performance: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Management, 36(2), 381–404.
Funding
We gratefully acknowledge financial support received from FCT- Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portugal) national funding, provided through research grant UIDB/04521/2020 and doctoral grant ref: SFRH/BD/73520/2010.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
RFB wrote the initial draft of this manuscript, after being directly involved in data collection (as the coordinator of the EEP Portugal research group), and its analysis (as part of his Ph.D. thesis: Belchior 2019).
RL has critically reviewed the paper’s first draft and made a major contribution to its final structure, focus and readability.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
Nascent Entrepreneurial Behavior (Nascent EB) measurement was conducted based on the international Entrepreneurship Education Project’sFootnote 3 first follow-up survey citing Carter et al. (1996) for items 1 to 11 and McGee et al. (2009) for items 12 to 16 as questions asked of participants if they had completed any of the following nascent activities:
-
(1)
Bought facilities / equipment;
-
(2)
Rented facilities / equipment;
-
(3)
Looked for facilities;
-
(4)
Invested own money;
-
(5)
Asked for funding;
-
(6)
Got financial support;
-
(7)
Not applicable (see footnote)
-
(8)
Devoted fulltime to business;
-
(9)
Applied for license / patent;
-
(10)
Formed a legal entity;
-
(11)
Hired employees;
-
(12)
Not applicable (see footnote)
-
(13)
Not applicable (see footnote)
-
(14)
Put together a start-up team;
-
(15)
Saved money to invest in the business;
-
(16)
Developed a product or service.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Belchior, R.F., Lyons, R. Explaining entrepreneurial intentions, nascent entrepreneurial behavior and new business creation with social cognitive career theory – a 5-year longitudinal analysis. Int Entrep Manag J 17, 1945–1972 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00745-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00745-7
Keywords
- Entrepreneurial intentions
- Nascent entrepreneurial behavior
- Entrepreneurial outcome expectations
- Entrepreneurial self-efficacy
- Social cognitive career theory
- New business creation