1 Introduction

Past and current climate changes have affected the pattern of genetic diversity and genetic structure of extant tree species. However, there is evidence that the intensity of the current climate change is higher than the ability of trees to adapt to changing conditions (Davis et al. 2005; Aitken et al. 2008). The survival of forests is highly dependent on the genetic variation within and among populations (Barrett and Schluter 2008), and for this reason, it is essential to evaluate the genetic variability of trees. Adaptive genetic variation is defined as the variation found between the genomes of individuals resulting from natural selection. Local environmental conditions can induce spatially varying selective pressure, which directly affects adaptive genetic variation by favoring different alleles in different spatial localities (Hedrick et al. 1976; Schoville et al. 2012; Richardson et al. 2014). In view of current climate change, the potential ability of trees to adapt to different environmental conditions should also be studied.

The Fst outlier test is a widely used approach to study local adaptation by detecting loci putatively under divergent selection. Loci exhibiting a non-neutral pattern of variation, with a higher or lower genetic differentiation than expected under neutrality, are to be considered under selection (Narum and Hess 2011). However, the key drawback of this type of approach is the risk of detecting false positives. In fact, loci with Fst values that deviate significantly from neutrality may be due to locus-specific effects (i.e., adaptive selection, mutation, assortative mating, and recombination), or due to genome-wide effects (i.e., genetic drift, bottlenecks, and gene flow). To avoid this uncertainty, Fst outlier analysis can be combined and supported by a landscape genomics approach. Landscape genomics focuses on understanding the interactions between environmental heterogeneity and adaptive genetic variation in natural populations. This is possible through environmental association analysis (EAA), which identifies genetic variants associated with particular environmental factors and has the potential to uncover adaptive patterns that are not discovered by traditional tests for the detection of outlier loci based on population genetic differentiation (Eckert et al. 2009a, 2010b; Schoville et al. 2012). In other words, EAA relates genomic information with environmental variables in order to reveal signatures of adaptive genetic variation and evolutionary processes (Joost et al. 2007; Coop et al. 2010; Stucki et al. 2017). Several statistical models to perform EAA have been developed, and at least two models should be combined in order to obtain reliable results (Rellstab et al. 2015). Recent landscape genomics studies on forest species combined outlier locus detection with environmental association analyses (Bradbury et al. 2013; Cuervo-Alcaron et al. 2018; Martins et al. 2018). Additional models considering the interaction between adaptive genetic variation and multiple environmental gradients have also been developed. One such tool is Gradient Forests (Ellis et al. 2012) which models and maps turnover in allele frequencies along environmental gradients.

The sweet chestnut is the only species in the genus Castanea in Europe and is widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin, ranging from the Black Sea region to the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula (Fineschi et al. 2000; Maurer and Fernández-López 2001). Its current distribution is the consequence of natural colonization together with a long history of human intervention, with the first documented domestication attempts dating back to the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece (Conedera et al. 2004; Mattioni et al. 2013). Sweet chestnut has a high economic value, mainly due to the consumption of its fruits and the production of timber. Because of the existing climatic variability along the distribution of chestnut in Europe and because the susceptibility of chestnut to climate change events (Camisón et al. 2020), it is an ideal species for studying neutral and adaptive genetic variability.

Microsatellite markers (simple sequence repeat (SSR)) are powerful tools for genetic diversity and evolutionary process studies in forest species (Tuskan et al. 2004; Yin et al. 2004; Varshney et al. 2005). A vast number of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are available for many plant species, some of them including expressed sequence tag (EST)-SSR markers linked to transcribed regions of the genome, with known or suggested functions (Scott et al. 2000; Krutovskii and Neale 2001; Kalia et al. 2011). Although EST-SSR are less polymorphic compared to genomic SSRs, they are more suited to reveal functional diversity in relation to adaptive variation (Varshney et al. 2005; Yatabe et al. 2007) and are thus used to understand local adaptation processes. EST-SSRs associated to drought stress have been reported in Quercus spp. (Sullivan et al. 2013; Lind and Gailing 2013), chestnut (Martín et al. 2010; Alcaide et al. 2019), and walnut (Torokeldiev et al. 2019). To study the adaptive variability and the processes involved in local adaptation of sweet chestnut, genomic and EST-SSR markers, and natural populations selected in areas with considerable differences in climatic conditions were used.

The main objectives of this study were to (1) perform simulations of chestnut distribution in view of climate change; (2) identifying signatures of adaptive variation of the populations in relation with the local climatic variables; (3) identify markers with signatures of selection performing outlier tests analysis; (4) associate these markers with climate variables of the population through a landscape genomics approach.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Tree populations

Sweet chestnut has a very fragmented distribution within Europe, ranging from the regions of the Caucasus to the Atlantic coast of Portugal. In this study, 268 individuals from 10 different natural populations located in four European countries (Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain) were analyzed (Table 1; Fig. 1). The chestnut populations were chosen based on their geographic location (Castellana 2020) and considering the different climatic conditions for each location in terms of rainfall events and temperatures (Appendix Fig. 5). The populations from Northern Italy, Northern Spain, and East Turkey (Villar Pellice IT08, Costa Atlántica SP03, Hopa TR03) are located in humid environments, characterized by heavy rainfall and low-to-moderate temperatures throughout the year. The southern Italian (Madonie IT01), the Spanish (Castanyet SP02, Hervás SP06, Sierra Norte SP14), the two Greek (Holomontas GR01; Hortiatis GR02), and western Turkish (Bursa TR11) populations are characterized by low rainfall and moderate-to-high temperatures throughout the year. All the populations studied are part of the germplasm collection of European chestnut populations conserved at the Institute of Research on Terrestrial Ecosystems; the samples have been collected in the field during several years and subsequently stored at − 80 °C.

Table 1 Location, code, number of individuals (N), and geographical coordinates in decimal degrees of the ten sweet chestnut populations studied
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Fig. 1
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Geographical distribution of the 10 Castanea sativa populations studied

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2.2 Climatic scenarios of populations

To compare present and future scenarios of tree populations, in view of climate change, twenty-one climatic variables for each population were used (Table 2). Data were obtained from WORLDCLIM “bioclimatic variables” digital dataset (Fick and Hijmans 2017). For present data, version 2.1 has been used; the future projection data used in this study are CMIP6 downscaled from Global Climate Model (GCM) BCC-CSM2-MR and Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSP) 245. The spatial resolution used was 2.5 min. The use of a large number of environmental factors may increase the number of statistical tests during association analysis, which needs to be considered in order that autocorrelation could be reduced. Furthermore, we looked for correlation between variables through Pearson’s correlation coefficient (|r| > 0.8) using the “ggpubr” package implemented in R (R Development Core Team 2019). Graphical output was achieved with the package “corrplot” (Appendix Fig. 6). Subsequently to highlight correlations, a principal components analysis (PCA) was performed with the “FactoMineR” package (Lê et al. 2008).

Table 2 Climate variables used in this study. Data were obtained from WORDCLIM (https://www.worldclim.org) at 2.5 min resolution
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Using the climatic data in the DIVA-GIS software (Hijmans et al. 2004), it was possible to represent present and future climatic scenarios for Europe (Appendix Fig. 5). Present and future climatic conditions referred to years 2020 and 2050, respectively. For each of the ten sampling locations, average minimum monthly temperatures, average maximum monthly temperatures, average minimum annual temperature, average maximum annual temperature, average monthly rainfall, and average annual rainfall were collected. Through the “Ecocrop” function implemented in DIVA-GIS, it was possible to determine the areas in which chestnut performs best in present and future climatic conditions (Fig. 2). EcoCrop module uses FAO’s EcoCrop database (FAO 2019) of the environmental requirements of a long list of plant species, including sweet chestnut.

Fig. 2
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Representation of the areas with best suitability for chestnut development in reference to 2020 (a) and 2050 (b)

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2.3 DNA isolation, SSR amplification, and genotyping

DNA extraction was performed with the DNAeasy 96 Plant Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The amount and quality of extracted DNA was visualized through electrophoresis in agarose gel at 1% with 5 × TAE as running buffer. All individuals were genotyped with 13 SSR markers (Castellana 2020). Five were gSSR markers developed in C. sativa (Appendix Table 7) (Marinoni et al. 2002; Buck et al. 2003) and eight were EST-SSR markers. The EST-SSR markers were developed from gene expression during tree exposure to water stress in Quercus robur (Durand et al. 2010) and selected based on information about their polymorphism linkage group and potential transferability to C. sativa (Alcaide et al. 2019) (Appendix Table 8). Three different PCR amplification multiplexes were assembled based on the size of products, using fluorescent dye-labelled primers (6-FAM, VIC, NED, PET; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California, USA). Mixtures were arranged as follows: mix (A) including CsCAT1, CsCAT3, CsCAT6, (B) CsCAT16, EMCs38 (C) FIR080, GOT004, GOT021, VIT057, and (D) FIR059, FIR094, GOT045, and VIT033 primers. Amplifications were performed with the Type-It® Microsatellite PCR Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA). PCR mix consisted of 4 µL of genomic DNA, 6.25 µL of 2× Type-it Multiplex PCR Master Mix, 1.25 µL of 10× Primer Mix (2 µM of each primer) and 1 µL of RNase-free water for a total volume of 12.5 µL. Amplification conditions were as follows: an initial heat activation step at 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 27 cycles consisting of a denaturation step at 95 °C for 30 s, an annealing step at 57° for 1.5 min, and an extension step at 72 °C for 30 s. A final extension step at 60 °C for 30 min was executed. PCR fragments have been run on an ABI PRISM® 3130 XL Genetic Analyzer for separation and sizing. GeneScan 250 LIZ was used as an internal size standard. Genotyping was performed using GeneMapper v4.0 software (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, USA).

2.4 Genetic diversity and structure of populations, and Fst outlier test

The probability of null alleles (Fnull) for each of the 5 gSSR and 8 EST-SSR loci analyzed was tested using the software FreeNA (Chapuis and Estoup 2007).

For each population and separately for neutral markers (gSSR) and EST-SSR, the number of alleles (Na), observed and expected heterozygosity (Ho, He), fixation index (Fis), and pairwise Fst were calculated using GeneAlex 6.503 (Peakall and Smouse 2012). Allelic richness (Ar) was evaluated through the use of HP-Rare (Kalinowski 2005). Significance test for the Fis values and the molecular variance (AMOVA) were calculated with Arlequin 3.1.1 software (Excoffier et al. 2005). Population structure was inferred using a Bayesian approach as implemented in the STRUCTURE 2.3.4 software (Pritchard et al. 2000), separately for the genomic gSSR and EST-SSR. Both analyses used the admixture model with correlated allele frequencies. Parameters were set for a burn-in period of 100,000 and a MCMC (Markov chain Monte Carlo) with 200,000 iterations. The range of K tested was equal to the number of the populations analyzed plus one, i.e., 11. Potential clusters (K) were tested using 20 iterations. To determine the most likely number of K, the ΔK method by Evanno et al. (2005) was applied using STRUCTURE HARVESTER (Dent and Von Holdt 2012) A graphical representation of the STRUCTURE results was performed using CLUMPAK (Kopelman et al. 2015).

Detection of Fst outliers was performed using BayeScan 2.1 (Foll et al. 2008). The eight EST-SSR and five gSSR loci were tested for the evidence of the effect of natural selection among all populations. The underlying geographic genetic structure was assessed during the detection of the Fst outlier; hence, analyses were ran first based on all populations together, then by comparing eastern vs western populations and finally by comparing the different genetic pools highlighted by the structure analyses. The program has been executed with twenty pilot runs with a length of 5,000 and a burn-in length of 50,000. The thinning interval was set to 50. Significant loci with positive alpha values were considered candidates for diversifying selection, according to Jeffrey’s scale of evidence (Jeffrey 1961).

2.5 Environmental association analysis of populations

To perform environmental association analysis (EAA), two different models were used: a logistic regression implemented in the Samβada software (Stucki et al. 2017), and a Bayesian mixed hierarchical model implemented in the software Latent Factor Mixed Model (LFMM) (Frichot and Francois 2013, 2015). The associations between climate variables and genetic variability were tested for all gSSR and EST-SSR markers. Both analyses were performed considering the underlying neutral genetic structure; this step is of fundamental importance; not taking into account the underlying neutral genetic structure can lead to false positives discoveries. If not corrected for the neutral genetic structure, the identification of associations could be the result of spatial arrangement and the demographic history of the populations, and not a sign of local adaptation; the underlying neutral genetic structure can mimic patterns expected under non-neutral processes. With the results obtained from STRUCTURE 2.3.4 software for gSSR markers, a multivariate analysis using the coefficients of membership (Q) for each individual was run, and the G scores to assess significance were calculated. As a second approach, a latent factor mixed model (LFMM) implemented in the R package LEA was performed. In this model, neutral population structure is introduced as a “latent factor.” The number of detected clusters (K) calculated by STRUCTURE were applied. Ten LFMM repetitions with 100,000 iterations and 10,000 burn-in were performed for each climate variable. Z-scores of multiple runs were combined using the median value, and p-values were adjusted for expected FDR at 0.05.

Although Samβada and LFMM are able to reveal associations between genetic variation and climate variables, none of these two approaches quantifies the contribution of each variable in the overall genetic structure of chestnut populations. Through the use of the “gradientForest” package (Ellis et al. 2012) implemented in R, it was possible to quantify the contribution of each climate variable on the allelic frequency variation in chestnut. GradientForest is capable of partitioning the allele frequency data at split values along climate gradients, allowing the exploration of nonlinear associations of climatic and allelic variables.

3 Results

3.1 Present and future climate conditions

A comparison between present and future climate scenarios within chestnut populations (Appendix Fig. 5) revealed an average increase of mean temperatures of 2.21 °C. Areas with the highest increase in temperatures were coincident with Bursa (TR11) and Sierra Norte (SP14) populations and showed an increase of 2.45 °C. All populations except Madonie (IT01), with an increase of 27 mm of rainfall, showed a decrease in rainfall of 85 mm in average. Costa Atlántica (SP03) showed the highest reduction of rainfall, i.e. 227 mm. The EcoCrop module showed a considerable reduction of areas with the best conditions for the development of chestnut in Europe (Fig. 2). Generally, areas with the best conditions for chestnut development were displaced to higher latitudes and altitudes.

3.2 Genetic diversity, population structure, and outlier loci

For both gSSR and EST-SSR loci, no high frequency of null alleles was detected; Fst including null alleles (INA) was 0.1063 and 0.2272 for gSSR and Est-SSR, respectively, while the Fst excluding null alleles (ENA) was 0.1015 and 0.2174 for gSSR and EST-SSR, respectively. Overall, neutral markers (gSSR) showed higher values for the genetic diversity indices per population compared to EST-SSR. Expected heterozygosity (He) for gSSR ranged from 0.639 (Hortiatis GR02) to 0.824 (Hervás SP06) with a mean value of 0.764 (Table 3). EST-SSR expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.284 (Holomontas GR01) to 0.501 (Costa Atlántica SP03) with a mean value of 0.389 (Table 4). The fixation index (Fis) was significantly different from zero (p < 0.01, p < 0.001) in several populations, both for gSSR (Bursa TR11, Hopa TR03, Villar Pellice IT08, Holomontas GR01) and EST-SSR (Hervás SP06, Bursa TR11, Hopa TR03, Villar Pellice IT08). Overall, allelic richness (Ar) showed higher mean values for neutral markers (Ar = 7.95) compared to functional markers (Ar = 3.01). The highest values of Ar were observed in the Hopa (TR03) population, for both neutral and functional markers. The results provided by STRUCTURE, considering both the delta K method by Evanno et al. (2005) and the distribution of the posterior log-likelihood (Appendix Figs. 7 and 8 ) have been checked. Based on the higher deltaK and on the lowest variance of the L(K) distribution, the most likely number of clusters (K) were K = 2 for gSSRs and K = 3 for EST-SSRs.

Table 3 Genetic diversity of ten sweet chestnut populations based on gSSR loci
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Table 4 Genetic diversity of ten sweet chestnut populations based on EST-SSR loci
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Results for the population structure based on the gSSR highlighted two core genetic population groups, separating east (Greek and Turkish populations) from west populations (Italian and Spanish) (Fig. 3a). On the other hand, the population genetic structure revealed by the EST-SSR was congruent with the different climatic conditions of the study areas (Fig. 3b, Appendix Fig. 5). Group I (blue colored in Fig. 3b) comprised Bursa (TR11), Holomontas (GR01), Hortiatis (GR02), Hervás (SP06), and Sierra Norte (SP14) populations, located in areas characterized by low precipitation and high temperature throughout the year (Appendix Fig. 5). The Madonie (IT01) population fell within group II (purple colored in Fig. 3b); this population is located at 1.100 m MSL, and the site is characterized by a low temperature and low precipitations and a xerothermic index (Xi) of 110 (Mattioni et al. 2008). The Hopa (TR03) population, located in a highly rainy area, belonged to the group III (orange color). The Castanyet (SP02) population, found in an area characterized by low mean annual temperature and low precipitations, showed some admixture with groups I and II, while Villar Pellice (IT08) and Costa Atlántica (SP03), located in areas with low mean annual temperature and high precipitations, showed some admixture with groups II and III. All the less significant structures and the sub-structures are reported in Appendix Fig. 9. For all of the approaches tested for the detection of outlier loci, BayeScan 2.1 analysis highlighted only the locus FIR059 as putatively under positive selection (Table 5). On the basis of Jeffrey’s scale of evidence, locus FIR059 was identified as a ‘decisive’ outlier candidate for diversifying selection. No sign of selection was highlighted for any of the other EST-SSR and gSSR markers (Appendix Fig. 10).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Population genetic structure of ten sweet chestnut populations grouped into clusters I (blue color) and II (orange) according to gSSRs markers (K = 2) (a) and grouped into clusters I (blue), II (purple) and III (orange) according to EST-SSR markers (K = 3) (b)

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Table 5 Results of BayeScan 2.1 Fst outlier analysis on eight EST-SSR loci from ten sweet chestnut populations
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3.3 Environmental associations

To reduce the risk of false positive loci discoveries, (i) EAA analyses was performed with two different models, (ii) associations between genetic variation and climate variables were corrected for neutral genetic structure, (iii) only associations for the outlier locus FIR059 were considered, and (iv) for FIR059, only alleles showing signs of associations with a climate variable in both Samβada and LFMM software applications were considered. The variables highlighted by Pearson’s test as being highly correlated (i.e., with |r| > 0.8; Appendix Fig. 6) were found to be the same as those of the PCA (Appendix Fig. 11). Pearson’s analysis revealed highly correlated climatic variables (|r| > 0.8), and for each set of correlated variables only one variable was selected. The resulting set of associated climatic variables and the ones selected for the analysis are shown in the Appendix Table 9. Variables AnnPrec and MeanAnnT were removed from subsequent analyses as they were highly correlated with all variables related to rainfall and temperatures. Samβada highlighted 14 alleles out of 54 that were associated with at least one climate variable, across seven EST-SSR. No associations were found for the GOT004 marker. Most alleles showed an association with more than one climate variable. LFMM analyses identified 20 out of the 54 alleles associated with at least one climate variable across eight EST-SSR. Again, no significant associations were found for the GOT004 marker. A total of 98 significant associations were highlighted by the two models, 27 of which were shared between Samβada and LFMM (Appendix Table 10). Seven associations for three different alleles were observed for FIR059 according to Samβada (Table 6). For the same locus, LFMM revealed 19 associations across 9 alleles, showing a higher potential for discovery than Samβada (Table 6).

Table 6 Significant associations between alleles from the FIR059 locus and the climate variables (codes in Table 2), according to LFMM and Samβada software. Climate variables in italics were significant in both models
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3.4 Contribution of climate variables in structuring genetic variation

GradientForest revealed climatic variables related to precipitation as key predictors for genetic variation at the locus FIR059. Of these, precipitation during the wettest quarter (PrecWeQ) was the most relevant (i.e., highest R2 values), followed by precipitation during the driest quarter (PrecDQ) (Fig. 4). The variables showing a greater contribution to the variation in allele frequencies, overlapped with those that showed significant signs of association by Samβada and LFMM. Allelic changes along the environmental gradients showed an important variation along the variable “PrecWeQ,” with a spike in the variability between 350 and 550 mm of rainfall (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4
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(a) Importance in terms of R2 weight of climate variables related to alleles of locus FIR059. (b) Cumulative importance of allelic change for the locus FIR059 along most important environmental gradients

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4 Discussion

We evaluated the adaptive genetic variability of sweet chestnut populations and identified genomic regions that might be involved in local adaptation processes in response to climate conditions. In order to prevent spurious correlations not directly related to adaptation (Novembre and Di Rienzo 2009), both gSSR and EST-SSR markers were used to assess neutral and adaptive components of genetic variability. Previous studies on chestnut have identified outlier loci related to bud burst (Martín et al. 2010), tolerance to drought (Alcaide et al. 2019), and resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi (Alcaide et al. 2020).

The growing interest in the impact of climate change on forest ecosystems has produced a vast amount of documentation over the last twenty years. Forest ecosystems are at great risk, including trees with an economic value in terms of production, such as the sweet chestnut. The estimated loss of areas with suitable conditions for the growth of chestnut, due to climate change (Fig. 2b) provides additional information in forestry and underlines the importance of studying adaptation in tree species. From an agricultural perspective, many nut trees require a certain amount of winter chill hours for proper fruit development (Byrne and Bacon 1992). The effect of prolonged water stress, prolonged waterlogging and chill hour reduction due to climate change on nut trees has already been documented (Luedeling et al. 2011; Camisón et al. 2020). Combined with this, a rainfall deficit and extreme summer heat in Europe can lead to a severe reduction in nut productivity (Ciais et al. 2005).

4.1 Genetic diversity and population structure of chestnut in Europe

Higher genetic diversity was observed for neutral markers in comparison to adaptive ones. As EST-SSR markers are linked to coding regions, they tend to be more conserved and, consequently, less polymorphic than neutral markers (Varsheney et al. 2005; Ellis and Burke 2007). Several other studies assessing the genetic diversity of plants species confirmed the higher polymorphism of genomic markers in comparison to functional markers (Şelale et al. 2013; Torokeldiev et al. 2019). The genetic diversity indices indicate slightly higher values for the western populations compared to those of the east; this result is in contrast to previous studies carried out on vascular plants in Europe, which see a tendential decrease in genetic diversity moving from east to west (Fady and Conord 2010; Conord et al. 2012). Here, the studied chestnut populations are a subsample of others genotyped in a previous work by Mattioni et al. (2017), in which higher values of He and Ar were observed in the central area of the species distribution. Hence, higher values of genetic diversity for the western populations can be a consequence of several colonization routes from different refugees, as observed in other species (Petit et al. 2006) as well as of human intervention.

The positive values of Fis observed in some populations for both types of molecular markers are probable due to factors such as the fragmentation and isolation of populations. It is notable that in some populations, considered as refugia during the last glaciation, the allelic richness and private allelic richness at neutral loci is high. This result is in agreement with those obtained in a previous paper on C. sativa (Mattioni et al. 2017) and Fagus selvatica (Comps et al. 2001), and it is supported by the hypotheses of Widmer and Lexer (2001) on high values of allelic richness on rifugia areas. On the other hand, the high value of private allelic richness at EST-SSr loci observed especially for Hopa population could reflect a selection of specific alleles due to adaptation.

STRUCTURE analyses produced different results for neutral and functional markers. When considering gSSR, STRUCTURE highlighted a congruence between the genetic diversity and geographical location of the populations: clear separation between eastern and western European populations. This demonstrates that the Carpathian and Balkanian mountain chain acted as a barrier, blocking the gene flow between two macro-regions. In Mattioni et al. (2017), where a large number of natural sweet chestnut populations have been genotyped with neutral markers, similar results were reported. Three different genetic groups were highlighted by the EST-SSR markers. The resulting structure clustered together populations collected in areas characterized by similar climatic conditions. Trees from Hopa (TR03), located in a region with heavy rainfall throughout the year (annual average of 1,227 mm) and moderate-to-low temperatures, were included in a well-defined genetic cluster (III). Similar climate conditions, referring to precipitations, can be found in Galicia (SP03) and Piemonte (IT08) regions; this could explain the membership of several individuals from these populations to the group III. Moreover, the two Spanish (SP02, SP03) and the Italian (IT08) populations are located in areas with low mean annual temperature, as well as the population IT01, that is located at 1100 m of altitude. We can suppose that a climatic variable as the low temperature could explain the genetic similarity of some individuals of these populations.

Results suggest that the selected EST-SSR markers were informative and able to differentiate populations based on climatic conditions. Indeed, we have to underline that our results have been achieved with a limited numbers of functional markers; further research, using a more consistent set of markers ideally found within transcribed regions of the genome are needed to better understand adaptive processes of chestnuts populations to different environmental conditions.

4.2 Environmental association analysis of chestnut in Europe

Compared to the Fst outlier tests, EAA analyses are more sensitive to subtle changes in allele frequencies and generally tend to be more robust (De Mita et al. 2013; Ahrens et al. 2018). Combining Fst with EAA was the best approach to maximize the probability of finding significant associations and to minimize the risk of detecting false positives (Rellstab et al. 2015). None of the five neutral markers showed association with climatic variables. This lack of association reinforces the hypothesis of the neutrality of the selected markers. As they are linked to non-coding regions of the genome, they do not show signs of intervention in adaptive processes. However, EAA highlighted 98 significant associations between EST-SSR markers and climatic variables. LFMM showed a slightly higher potential for discovering environmental associations than Samβada (59 vs. 39). Among the nine alleles, for which associations with climate variables were found for the locus FIR059, three of these were shared with the LFMM and Samβada, specifically for alleles 152, 181 and 185. The associations found for allele 152 were mainly related to rainfall. Interestingly, allele 152 showed an almost total exclusivity for individuals from the Hopa (TR03) population (Appendix Fig. 12), which belongs to the area with the highest precipitation. It could be possible that the fixation of this allele for individuals of the Hopa (TR03) population was due to the climatic conditions of the region. The associations found for allele 181 were again related to precipitation. In this case, rain associated events were related to the driest period of the year (PrecDQ), and the fixation of this allele may respond to environmental scenarios related to warm and dry areas. In terms of allelic presence (Appendix Fig. 12), none of the trees from the Hopa (TR03) region showed the allele 181, in contrast to Hervás (SP06), Holomontas (GR01), and Madonie (IT01) trees, located in dry regions, which showed the highest frequencies. The associations found for allele 185 were linked to temperature variables, namely MeanTCQ, TSeas, and ATR. In this case, this allele showed frequencies distributed among seven different populations, with the highest frequencies in chestnuts from Castanyet (SP02) and Costa Atlántica (SP03). Galicia and Catalonia regions have a very mild climate, with average minimum and maximum temperatures of 11.0 vs. 11.7 and 18.2 vs. 18.6 °C, respectively. The fixation of allele 185 could therefore be linked to this particular temperature range.

4.3 The relevance of the FIR059 marker

The Fst test used here to identify outliers implemented in BayeScan 2.1 is more conservative than other methods (Narum and Hess 2011). Out of 13 markers tested for evidence of selection, FIR059 was detected as an outlier locus with “decisive” signs of selection. The FIR059 marker is putatively linked to the RH7 gene, belonging to the DEAD-box-RNA helicase family. This family of helicases is involved in the metabolic processes of RNA, such as transcription, splicing and translation of mRNA, and degradation of the DNA (Huang et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2016). RNA helicases have been associated with different functions linked to the correct development of the plant and biotic and abiotic stress responses (Kim et al. 2008). Specifically, the RH7 helicase plays an important role during the embryonic phase development of plants and in their tolerance to heat, frost and drought stress (Vashisht and Tuteja 2006; Macovei et al. 2012). It is possible that the fixation of the alleles for the locus FIR059 found to be associated with climatic variables may be the result of selective processes due to the different climatic conditions in the various regions.

Our results are in agreement with a study by Alcaide et al. (2019) on sweet chestnut, which identified the locus FIR059 as an outlier locus also putatively under selection. The locus was found to be involved in the tolerance and the susceptibility of chestnut to drought stress. Specifically, FIR059 showed three private alleles for drought-susceptible individuals and two private alleles for drought-tolerant individuals. Of these five alleles, three (152, 160, and 176) were found here to be associated with climatic variables, of which allele 152 related to precipitation. In the study by Alcaide et al. (2019) allele 152 was found to be private in drought-tolerant plants, reinforcing the hypothesis of a link between this allele and the plant’s exploitation of water resources. Associations for alleles 160 and 176 were not explored as they were highlighted only by LFMM. Allele 176, highlighted as private in drought-tolerant chestnuts (Alcaide et al. 2019), showed here an association with the mean temperature of the wettest quarter. Allele 160, also highlighted as a private allele in drought-susceptible chestnuts (Alcaide et al. 2019), showed associations with mean annual temperature and annual minimum temperature, and precipitation seasonality. This provides evidence about the putative involvement of alleles 152, 160, and 176 in mechanisms responding to abiotic stresses. Results strongly suggest that FIR059 is a marker of considerable interest for the identification of genotypes adapted to different climatic conditions.

5 Conclusions

Climate predictions will induce a change in suitable areas for sweet chestnut distribution. Here, we have reported a restricted case, represented by a limited number of chestnut population, we have been able of highlighting regions of the genome that have been putatively affected by climate pressures. The identification of alleles related to climatic variables could be relevant for understanding adaptation of this tree species in the future. It has been proven here that landscape genomics and association analyses were capable of identifying in chestnut loci involved in mechanisms of tolerance and adaptation to different environmental challenges. This work aimed to emphasize the close inter-relationship existing between trees and environment, and how climate variables were able to shape their genetic diversity and adaptive variation.