Abstract
Restored oyster reefs enhance commercial harvests and ecosystem services in coastal environments. Spatial and temporal changes in habitat availability can affect reef persistence and restoration benefits, and understanding how construction and location of a restored habitat influence its persistence over time is key to optimizing restoration efforts. The short-term persistence of six subtidal restored oyster reefs in Pamlico Sound, NC, USA was characterized by sidescan sonar and bathymetric mapping conducted immediately after restoration in August 2016 and again 21 months later in May 2018. A U-net convolutional neural network architecture was trained to classify reef pixels within the sonar imagery using image-based and image-texture features calculated from gray-level co-occurrence matrices. Oyster reef restoration used shell and limestone marl to construct flat substrates, with only a few 10’s of centimeters of local relief, spread over areas of ~3000–12,000 m2. All six reefs provided habitat for the settlement and growth of oyster populations, but this role changed as reefs underwent varying degrees of sediment burial between surveys. Reefs constructed in relatively low-energy environments lost ~18–35% of their substrate area, primarily by deposition of sediment along their margins. Reefs having greater sediment supply and greater exposure to predominant winds and currents were most susceptible to burial and became heavily fragmented with ~50–65% of the restored habitat lost. Sediment dynamics appear to exert a controlling influence on the success of these reefs, and oyster restoration sites in high-energy environments may have limited long-term economic and ecosystem benefits.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baggett, L.P., S.P. Powers, R.D. Brumbaugh, L.D. Coen, B.M. DeAngelis, J.K. Greene, B.T. Hancock, S.M. Morlock, B.L. Allen, D.L. Breitburg, D. Bushek, J.H. Grabowski, R.E. Grizzle, E.D. Grosholz, M.K. La Peyre, M.W. Luckenbach, K.A. McGraw, M.F. Piehler, S.R. Westby, and P.S.E. Zu Ermgassen. 2015. Guidelines for evaluating performance of oyster habitat restoration. Restoration Ecology 23 (6): 737–745. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12262.
Beck, M.W., R.D. Brumbaugh, L. Airoldi, A. Carranza, L.D. Coen, C. Crawford, O. Defeo, G.J. Edgar, B. Hancock, M.C. Kay, H.S. Lenihan, M.W. Luckenbach, C.L. Toropova, G. Zhang, and X. Guo. 2011. Oyster reefs at risk and recommendations for conservation, restoration, and management. BioScience 61 (2): 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.5.
Blondel, P., L.M. Parson, and V. Robigou. 1998. TexAn: textural analysis of sidescan sonar imagery and generic seafloor characterization. Oceans Conference Record (IEEE) 1 (2): 419–423. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.425676.
Burkholder, J., D. Eggleston, H. Glasgow, C. Brownie, R. Reed, G. Melia, C. Kinder, G. Janowitz, R. Corbett, M. Posey, T. Alphin, D. Toms, and N. Deamer. 2004. Comparative impacts of major hurricanes on the Neuse River and western Pamlico Sound ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (25): 9291–9296.
Callihan, R., B. Depro, D. Lapidus, T. Sartwell, and C. Viator. 2016. Economic analysis of the costs and benefits of restoration and enhancement of shellfish habitat and oyster propagation in North Carolina. Final Report to Albemarle-Pamlico National Estuary Partnership.
Caress, D.W., and D.N. Chayes. 1995. New software for processing sidescan data from sidescan-capable multibeam sonars. Oceans Conference Record (IEEE) 1: 997–1000. https://doi.org/10.1109/oceans.1995.528558.
Chak, P., P. Navadiya, B. Parikh, and K.C. Pathak. 2020. Neural network and SVM based kidney stone based medical image classification. In Communications in Computer and Information Science 1147: 158–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4015-8_14.
Chu, Z., T. Tian, R. Feng, and L. Wang. 2019. Sea-land segmentation with Res-UNet and fully connected CRF. IGARSS 2019 - 2019 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium: 3840–3843. https://doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS.2019.8900625.
Clunies, G.J., R.P. Mulligan, D.J. Mallinson, and J.P. Walsh. 2017. Modeling hydrodynamics of large lagoons: insights from the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 189: 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.03.012.
Coen, L.D., R.D. Brumbaugh, D. Bushek, R. Grizzle, M.W. Luckenbach, M.H. Posey, S.P. Powers, and S.G. Tolley. 2007. Ecosystem services related to oyster restoration. Marine Ecology Progress Series 341: 303–307. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps341299.
Colden, A.M., and R.N. Lipcius. 2015. Lethal and sublethal effects of sediment burial on the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Marine Ecology Progress Series 527: 105–117. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11244.
Colden, A.M., K.A. Fall, G.M. Cartwright, and C.T. Friedrichs. 2016. Sediment suspension and deposition across restored oyster reefs of varying orientation to flow: implications for restoration. Estuaries and Coasts 39 (5): 1435–1448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-016-0096-y.
Colden, A.M., R.J. Latour, and R.N. Lipcius. 2017. Reef height drives threshold dynamics of restored oyster reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series 582: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12362.
Cowart, L., D.R. Corbett, and J.P. Walsh. 2011. Shoreline change along sheltered coastlines: insights from the Neuse River Estuary, NC, USA. Remote Sensing 3 (7): 1516–1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3071516.
Deaton, A.S., W.S. Chappell, K. Hart, J. O’Neal, and B. Boutin. 2010. North Carolina coastal habitat protection plan. North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 639 pp. NC: Division of Marine Fisheries.
Du, J., K. Park, T.M. Dallapenna, and J.M. Clay. 2019. Dramatic hydrodynamic and sedimentary responses in Galveston Bay and adjacent inner shelf to Hurricane Harvey. Science of the Total Environment 653: 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.403.
Edelsbrunner, H., D.G. Kirkpatrick, and R. Seidel. 1983. On the shape of a set of points in the plane. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory 29 (4): 551–559. https://doi.org/10.1109/sfcs.1977.21.
Eulie, D.O., J.P. Walsh, D.R. Corbett, and R.P. Mulligan. 2017. Temporal and spatial dynamics of estuarine shoreline change in the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System, North Carolina, USA. Estuaries and Coasts 40 (3): 741–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-016-0143-8.
Eulie, D.O., D.R. Corbett, and J.P. Walsh. 2018. Shoreline erosion and decadal sediment accumulation in the Tar-Pamlico estuary, North Carolina, USA: a source-to-sink analysis. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 202: 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.10.011.
Feldens, P., I. Schulze, S. Papenmeier, M. Schönke, and J.S. von Deimling. 2018. Improved interpretation of marine sedimentary environments using multi-frequency multibeam backscatter data. Geosciences 8 (6): 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8060214.
Garg, L., P. Shukla, S.K. Singh, V. Bajpai, and U. Yadav. 2019. Land use land cover classification from satellite imagery using mUnet: a modified UNET architecture. VISIGRAPP 2019 - Proceedings of the 14th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications 4: 359–365. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007370603590365.
Giffin, D., and D.R. Corbett. 2003. Evaluation of sediment dynamics in coastal systems via short-lived radioisotopes. Journal of Marine Systems 42: 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(03)00068-X.
Gonzalez, R.C., R.E. Woods, and S.L. Eddins. 2011. Digital image processing using MATLAB. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Grabowski, J.H., R.D. Brumbaugh, R.F. Conrad, A.G. Keeler, J.J. Opaluch, C.H. Peterson, M.F. Piehler, S.P. Powers, and A.R. Smyth. 2012. Economic valuation of ecosystem services provided by oyster reefs. BioScience 62 (10): 900–909. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.10.10.
Grizzle, R.E., and K.W. Ward. 2016. Assessment of recent Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) reef restoration projects in the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire: planning for the future. Final Report to Piscataqua Region Estuarine Partnership.
Guan, S., A.A. Khan, S. Sikdar, and P.V. Chitnis. 2020. Fully dense UNet for 2-D sparse photoacoustic tomography artifact removal. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics 24 (2): 568–576. https://doi.org/10.1109/JBHI.2019.2912935.
Haralick, R.M. 1974. A measure for circularity of digital figures. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics 4 (4): 394–396. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1974.5408463.
Haralick, R.M., I. Dinstein, and K. Shanmugam. 1973. Textural features for image classification. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics 3 (6): 610–621. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1973.4309314.
Hernández, A.B., R.D. Brumbaugh, P. Frederick, R. Grizzle, M.W. Luckenbach, C.H. Peterson, and C. Angelini. 2018. Restoring the eastern oyster: how much progress has been made in 53 years? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16 (8): 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1935.
Huff, L.C. 2008. Acoustic remote sensing as a tool for habitat mapping in Alaska waters. In Marine habitat mapping technology for Alaska, ed. J.R. Reynolds and H.G. Greene, 29–46. Fairbanks, AK, USA: Alaska Sea Grant, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Ji, Z.G., and K.R. Jin. 2014. Impacts of wind waves on sediment transport in a large, shallow lake. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management 19 (2): 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/lre.12057.
Jia, P., and M. Li. 2012a. Circulation dynamics and salt balance in a lagoonal estuary. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 117 (C1): C01003. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007124.
Jia, P., and M. Li. 2012b. Dynamics of wind-driven circulation in a shallow lagoon with strong horizontal density gradient. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 117 (C5): C05013. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007475.
La Peyre, M.K., A.T. Humphries, S.M. Casas, and J.F. La Peyre. 2014. Temporal variation in development of ecosystem services from oyster reef restoration. Ecological Engineering 63: 34–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.12.001.
Lenihan, H.S. 1999. Physical-biological coupling on oyster reefs: how habitat structure influences individual performance. Ecological Monographs 69: 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9615(1999)069[0251,PBCOOR]2.0.CO;2.
Lenihan, H.S., and C.H. Peterson. 1998. How habitat degradation through fishery disturbance enhances impacts of hypoxia on oyster reefs. Ecological Applications 8: 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0128,HHDTFD]2.0.CO;2.
Leonard, L.A., A.C. Hine, M.E. Luther, R.P. Stumpf, and E.E. Wright. 1995. Sediment transport processes in a west-central Florida open marine marsh tidal creek; the role of tides and extra-tropical storms. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 41 (2): 225–248. https://doi.org/10.1006/ecss.1995.0063.
Li, R., W. Liu, L. Yang, S. Sun, W. Hu, F. Zhang, and W. Li. 2018. DeepUNet: a deep fully convolutional network for pixel-level sea-land segmentation. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 11 (11): 3954–3962. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2018.2833382.
Lipcius, R.N., R.P. Burke, D.N. McCulloch, S.J. Schreiber, D.M. Schulte, R.D. Seitz, and J. Shen. 2015. Overcoming restoration paradigms: value of the historical record and metapopulation dynamics in native oyster restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science 2: 65. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00065.
Liu, X., and W. Huang. 2009. Modeling sediment resuspension and transport induced by storm wind in Apalachicola Bay, USA. Environmental Modelling and Software 24 (11): 1302–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2009.04.006.
Lueck, R., L.St. Laurent, and J. Moum. 2019. Turbulence in the benthic boundary layer. In Encyclopedia of ocean sciences, ed. J.K. Cochran, H. Bokunieqicz, and P. Yager, 3rd ed. Elsevier Science & Technology.
Luettich, R.A., S.D. Carr, J.V. Reynolds-Fleming, C.W. Fulcher, and J.E. McNinch. 2002. Semi-diurnal seiching in a shallow, micro-tidal lagoonal estuary. Continental Shelf Research 22 (11-13): 1669–1681. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4343(02)00031-6.
MD DNR. 2020. Ecological restoration. Maryland Department of Natural Resources. https://dnr.maryland.gov/fisheries/Pages/oysters/eco-restoration.aspx. Accessed 3 February 2020.
Mroch, R.M., D.B. Eggleston, and B.J. Puckett. 2012. Spatiotemporal variation in oyster fecundity and reproductive output in a network of no-take reserves. Journal of Shellfish Research 31 (4): 1091–1101. https://doi.org/10.2983/035.031.0420.
Mulligan, R.P., J.P. Walsh, and H.M. Wadman. 2015. Storm surge and surface waves in a shallow lagoonal estuary during the crossing of a hurricane. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering 141 (4): A5014001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000260.
NC DMF. 2020a. Habitat enhancement programs. North Carolina Environmental Quality Division of Marine Fisheries. http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/mf/habitat/enhancement. Accessed 31 January 2020.
NC DMF. 2020b. Estuarine benthic mapping program. North Carolina Environmental Quality Division of Marine Fisheries. http://portal.ncdenr.org/web/mf/habitat/maps. Accessed 25 September 2020.
NC DWR. 2009. Neuse River basinwide water quality plan. North Carolina Division of Water Resources. https://www.ncwater.org/basins/neuse/index01072015.php. Accessed 7 February 2020.
NC DWR. 2014. Tar-Pamlico River basinwide water resources management plan. North Carolina Division of Water Resources. https://www.ncwater.org/basins/Tar-Pamlico/index.php. Accessed 7 February 2020.
Olofsson, P., G.M. Foody, S.V. Stehman, and C.E. Woodcock. 2013. Making better use of accuracy data in land change studies: estimating accuracy and area and quantifying uncertainty using stratified estimation. Remote Sensing of Environment 129: 122–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.10.031.
Olofsson, P., G.M. Foody, M. Herold, S.V. Stehman, C.E. Woodcock, and M.A. Wulder. 2014. Good practices for estimating area and assessing accuracy of land change. Remote Sensing of Environment 148: 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.02.015.
Olofsson, P., P. Arévalo, A.B. Espejo, C. Green, E. Lindquist, R.E. McRoberts, and M.J. Sanz. 2020. Mitigating the effects of omission errors on area and area change estimates. Remote Sensing of Environment 236: 111492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111492.
Osburn, C.L., J.C. Rudolph, H.W. Paerl, A.G. Hounshell, and B.R. Van Dam. 2019. Lingering carbon cycle effects of Hurricane Matthew in North Carolina’s coastal waters. Geophysical Research Letters 46 (5): 2654–2661. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082014.
Pace, N.G., and C.M. Dyer. 1979. Machine classification of sedimentary sea bottoms. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience Electronics 17 (3): 52–56. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGE.1979.294612.
Paerl, H.W., J.L. Pinckney, J.M. Fear, and B.L. Peierls. 1998. Ecosystem responses to internal and watershed organic matter loading: consequences for hypoxia in the eutrophying Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 166: 17–25. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps166017.
Paerl, H.W., L.M. Valdes, A.R. Joyner, B.L. Peierls, M.F. Piehler, S.R. Riggs, R.R. Christian, L.A. Eby, L.B. Crowder, J.S. Ramus, E.J. Clesceri, C.P. Buzzelli, and R.A. Luettich. 2006. Ecological response to hurricane events in the Pamlico Sound system, North Carolina, and implications for assessment and management in a regime of increased frequency. Estuaries and Coasts 29 (6): 1033–1045. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02798666.
Paerl, H.W., J.R. Crosswell, B. Van Dam, N.S. Hall, K.L. Rossignol, C.L. Osburn, A.G. Hounshell, R.S. Sloup, and L.W. Harding. 2018. Two decades of tropical cyclone impacts on North Carolina’s estuarine carbon, nutrient and phytoplankton dynamics: implications for biogeochemical cycling and water quality in a stormier world. Biogeochemistry 141 (3): 307–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0438-x.
Paerl, H.W., N.S. Hall, A.G. Hounshell, K.L. Rossignol, M.A. Barnard, R.A. Leuttich, J.C. Rudolph, C.L. Osburn, J. Bales, and L.W. Harding. 2020. Recent increases of rainfall and flooding from tropical cyclones (TCs) in North Carolina (USA): implications for organic matter and nutrient cycling in coastal watersheds. Biogeochemistry 150 (2): 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-020-00693-4.
Peters, J.W., D.B. Eggleston, B.J. Puckett, and S.J. Theuerkauf. 2017. Oyster demographics in harvested reefs vs. no-take reserves: implications for larval spillover and restoration success. Frontiers in Marine Science 4: 326. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00326.
Pierson, K.J., and D.B. Eggleston. 2014. Response of estuarine fish to large-scale oyster reef restoration. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 143 (1): 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/00028487.2013.847863.
Pollack, J.B., A. Cleveland, T.A. Palmer, A.S. Reisinger, and P.A. Montagna. 2012. A restoration suitability index model for the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) in the Mission-Aransas Estuary, TX, USA. PLoS ONE 7 (7): e40839. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040839.
Poppe, L.J., K.Y. McMullen, S.J. Williams, and V.F. Paskevich. 2014. USGS east-coast sediment analysis: procedures, database, and GIS data (ver. 3.0, November 2014): U.S. Geological Survey open-file report 2005-1001 https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1001/.
Powers, S.P., C.H. Peterson, J.H. Grabowski, and H.S. Lenihan. 2009. Success of constructed oyster reefs in no-harvest sanctuaries: implications for restoration. Marine Ecology Progress Series 389: 159–170. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08164.
Puckett, B.J., and D.B. Eggleston. 2012. Oyster demographics in a network of no-take reserves: recruitment, growth, survival, and density dependence. Marine and Coastal Fisheries 4 (1): 605–627. https://doi.org/10.1080/19425120.2012.713892.
Puckett, B.J., and D.B. Eggleston. 2016. Metapopulation dynamics guide marine reserve design: importance of connectivity, demographics, and stock enhancement. Ecosphere 7 (6): e01322. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1322.
Puckett, B.J., D.B. Eggleston, P.C. Kerr, and R.A. Luettich. 2014. Larval dispersal and population connectivity among a network of marine reserves. Fisheries Oceanography 23 (4): 342–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/fog.12067.
Puckett, B.J., S.J. Theuerkauf, D.B. Eggleston, R. Guajardo, C. Hardy, J. Gao, and R.A. Luettich. 2018. Integrating larval dispersal, permitting, and logistical factors within a validated Habitat Suitability Index for oyster restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science 5: 76. https://doi.org/10.3389/FMARS.2018.00076.
Quo, Z., L. Zhang, L. Lu, M. Bagheri, R.M. Summers, M. Sonka, and J. Yao. 2018. Deep LOGISMOS: Deep learning graph-based 3D segmentation of pancreatic tumors on CT scans. Proceedings - International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging, 2018-April: 1230–1233. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISBI.2018.8363793.
Reed, T.B., and D. Hussong. 1989. Digital image processing techniques for enhancement and classification of Sea MARC II side scan sonar imagery. Journal of Geophysical Research 94 (B6): 7469–7490. https://doi.org/10.1029/JB094iB06p07469.
Reidenbach, M.A., M. Limm, M. Hondzo, and M.T. Stacey. 2010. Effects of bed roughness on boundary layer mixing and mass flux across the sediment-water interface. Water Resources Research 46 (7): W07530. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008248.
Ronneberger, O., P. Fischer, and T. Brox. 2015. U-net: Convolutional networks for biomedical image segmentation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics) 9351: 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24574-4_28.
Schulte, D.M., R.P. Burke, and R.N. Lipcius. 2009. Unprecedented restoration of a native oyster metapopulation. Science 325 (5944): 1124–1128. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1176516.
Stehman, S.V. 2013. Estimating area from an accuracy assessment error matrix. Remote Sensing of Environment 132: 202–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.01.016.
Stoian, A., V. Poulain, J. Inglada, V. Poughon, and D. Derksen. 2019, 1986. Land cover maps production with high resolution satellite image time series and convolutional neural networks: adaptations and limits for operational systems. Remote Sensing 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11171986.
Stokes, S., S. Wunderink, M. Loew, G. Gereffi. 2012. Restoring gulf oyster reefs: opportunities and innovation, Duke University, Global Value Chains, Available online: https://gvcc.duke.edu/cggclisting/restoring-gulf-oyster-reefs-opportunities-for-innovation/
Styles, R. 2015. Flow and turbulence over an oyster reef. Journal of Coastal Research 314: 978–985. https://doi.org/10.2112/jcoastres-d-14-00115.1.
Theuerkauf, S.J., and R.N. Lipcius. 2016. Quantitative validation of a habitat suitability index for oyster restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science 3: 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2016.00064.
Theuerkauf, S.J., D.B. Eggleston, and B.J. Puckett. 2019. Integrating ecosystem services considerations within a GIS-based habitat suitability index for oyster restoration. PLOS ONE 14 (1): e0210936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210936.
VA DEQ. 2020. Coastal issues & Virginia Coastal Zone Management program initiatives. Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. https://www.deq.virginia.gov/Programs/CoastalZoneManagement/CZMIssuesInitiatives.aspx. Accessed 3 February 2020.
Wells, J.T., and S.Y. Kim. 1989. Sedimentation in the Albemarle-Pamlico lagoonal system: synthesis and hypotheses. Marine Geology 88 (3-4): 263–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(89)90101-1.
Whitman, E.R., and M.A. Reidenbach. 2012. Benthic flow environments affect recruitment of Crassostrea virginica larvae to an intertidal oyster reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series 463: 177–191. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09882.
Xie, L., and D.B. Eggleston. 1999. Computer simulations of wind-induced estuarine circulation patterns and estuary-shelf exchange processes: the potential role of wind forcing on larval transport. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 49 (2): 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1006/ecss.1999.0498.
Xue, Z., R. He, J.P. Liu, and J.C. Warner. 2012. Modeling transport and deposition of the Mekong River sediment. Continental Shelf Research 37. Pergamon: 66–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2012.02.010.
Zang, Z., Z.G. Xue, N. Bi, Z. Yao, X. Wu, Q. Ge, and H. Wang. 2017. Seasonal and intra-seasonal variations of suspended-sediment distribution in the Yellow Sea. Continental Shelf Research 148: 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2017.08.016.
Zyuzin, V., P. Sergey, A. Mukhtarov, T. Chumarnaya, O. Solovyova, A. Bobkova, and V. Myasnikov. 2018. Identification of the left ventricle endocardial border on two-dimensional ultrasound images using the convolutional neural network Unet. Proceedings - 2018 Ural Symposium on Biomedical Engineering. Radioelectronics and Information Technology, USBEREIT 2018: 76–78. https://doi.org/10.1109/USBEREIT.2018.8384554.
Acknowledgements
We thank R. Patrick Lyon and Gina Long for assisting in data collection, Chris Norcross and Clara Frickmann for their efforts in processing the sidescan sonar and bathymetric datasets, and Shannon Ricci for discussions regarding the machine learning methodology. Jason Peters and staff at the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries provided valuable information on cultch reef construction and assisted with selecting study reefs for mapping and monitoring. Thanks to Geoff Douglas and the team at SeaRobotics Corporation for their assistance in developing the unmanned surface vehicle. We thank S. Simenstad and three anonymous reviewers for suggestions and comments that improved the manuscript.
Funding
Funding for this project was provided by the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Coastal and Recreational Fishing License Grant Program (2017-H-063) and the North Carolina Sea Grant Core Funding Program (R18-HCE-2). The acquisition of the unmanned surface vehicle and sonar was supported by the National Science Foundation (DBI-1522489). Computational resources were provided through the NVIDIA GPU Academic Grant program. Olivia Caretti received additional support from a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Judy Grassle
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(PDF 9941 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Caretti, O.N., Bohnenstiehl, D.R. & Eggleston, D.B. Spatiotemporal Variability in Sedimentation Drives Habitat Loss on Restored Subtidal Oyster Reefs. Estuaries and Coasts 44, 2100–2117 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-021-00921-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-021-00921-6