Original ArticleSublethal and antioxidant effects of six ichthyotoxic algae on early-life stages of the Japanese pearl oyster
Section snippets
1. Introduction
Harmful algal blooms (HAB) have become widely distributed in aquatic environments, with clear trends of geographical expansions associated with anthropogenic activities, notably eutrophication, aquaculture activities, ship ballast waters, biofouling, climate change, and potentially microplastic pollution ((Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1991) Hallegraeff, 1993, 2010; Vitousek et al., 1997; Hamer et al., 2001; Anderson et al., 2002, 2012; Hégaret et al., 2008; (Glibert et al., 2014); Kudela et al., 2015
2.1. Biological material: algae and pearl oysters
The harmful algae Heterocapsa circularisquama, Chattonella marina, Heterosigma akashiwo, Karenia mikimotoi, K. papilionacea, and Margalefidinium polykrikoides were isolated from western Japan, and grown in autoclaved f/2 medium (Chen et al., 1969). All cultures were maintained under a 12 h light:12 h dark photoperiod, at 23 °C, and harvested at exponential growth phase for the exposure experiments. Algal cell densities were determined a priori. Sexually mature male and female pearl oysters,
3.1. Egg quality, fertilization success and embryo development
Quality of pearl oyster eggs was affected by exposure to Margalefidinium polykrikoides (Figs. 6 and 7), with abnormal membranes observed in 20.00 ± 2.85% of the exposed eggs. Except for exposure to C. marina, K. mikimotoi, M. polykrikoides, H. akashiwo and H. circularisquama induced spontaneous expulsion of polar bodies in 24.67 ± 1.45%, 20.00 ± 1.15%, 11.33 ± 1.45% and 8.97 ± 2.40%, respectively. Fertilization success, measured as the percentage of viable fertilized eggs that reached the
4. Discussion
In the present study, the effects of six ichthyototxic harmful algal bloom (HAB) species on eggs, fertilization, embryo development and three larval stages of the Japanese pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata martensii, were investigated, at realistically low cell densities and short durations of exposures. These species of HAB form recurrent blooms in coastal waters of Western Japan that last from a few days to a few months, at cell densities ranging from a few cells to several thousand cells per ml.
Author contributions
L. Basti conceived the experiments and acquired the funds; S. Nagai provided HAB cultures; L. Basti, J. Go, S. Okano, K. Higuchi, K. Nagai performed the experiments; L. Basti analyzed the enzymes and the data, and wrote the manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgment
The research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (No. 17310027), and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science through a Grant-In-Aid for Research Activity Start-up (15H06219).
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