Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Resilience versus vulnerability: Turkey’s small power diplomacy in the 1930s

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Politics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research on small powers has composed a slim section of International Relations literature. More focus has been given on super, great, and middle powers since their interactions have more influence. Differentiating small from middle powers is also problematic, unlike distinguishing great powers from these two. The difficulty of choosing the “right” quantitative and/or qualitative criteria for defining state power is one major reason for this. Therefore, this study, rather than developing a quantitative/qualitative contents list for outlining small powers, aims to utilize a so far not-well-tried approach of testing their diplomatic success. For this, it uses small powers’ resilience—vulnerability nexus to examine Turkish politico-economic diplomacy in the 1930s. Quantitatively and qualitatively, the 1930s Turkey was an acceptable example of a small power. The study aims to prove that Turkey furthered its national interests by overshadowing its vulnerabilities with a resilient small power diplomacy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For a detailed analysis of the definition of small states, see Amstrup (1976) and Crowards (2002); for the criteria of such a definition see also: Kuznets (1960), Demas (1965), Handel (1981), Jalan (1982) and East (1973).

References

  • Amersfoort, H., and W. Klinkert. 2011. Introduction. Small States in a Big World. In Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940, ed. H. Amersfoort and W. Klinkert, 1–25. Leiden: Brill.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Amstrup, N. 1976. The Perennial Problem of Small States: A Survey of Research Efforts. Cooperation and Conflict 11 (2): 163–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, C., and N. Nugent. 2005. Small States and the European Union. Current Politics and Economics of Europe 11 (1): 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, H.W., and R. Read. 2003. The Determinants of Economic Growth in Small States. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 92 (368): 99–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atatürk’ün Söylev ve Demeçleri I. 1959. Ankara: Türk İnkilap Tarihi Enstitüsü.

  • Atkins, J.P., S. Mazzi, and C.D. Easter. 2000. A Commonwealth Vulnerability Index for Developing Countries: The Position of Small States. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Baldacchino, G. 2009. Thucydides or Kissinger? A Critical Review of Smaller State Diplomacy. In The Diplomacies of Small States Between Vulnerability and Resilience, ed. A.F. Cooper and T.M. Shaw, 23–34. Palgrave: Houndmills.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barlas, D. 1998. Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–1939. Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barlas, D. 2004. Friends or Foes? Diplomatic Relations Between Italy and Turkey, 1923–36. International Journal of Middle East Studies 36 (2): 231–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlas, D. 2005. Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. Opportunities and Limits for Middle-Power Activism in the 1930s. Journal of Contemporary History 40 (3): 441–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayar, Ali H. 1996. The Developmental State and Economic Policy in Turkey. Third World Quarterly 17 (4): 773–785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, R., and F. Keyman. 2012. Turkey: An Emerging Hub of Globalization and Internationalist Humanitarian Actor? Globalizations 9 (1): 73–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beller, W.P., P. d’Ayala, and P.L. Hein, eds. 1990. Sustainable Development and Environmental Management of Small Islands. Paris: UNESCO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berend, I.T. 2000. The Failure of Economic Nationalism: Central and Eastern Europe before World War II. Revue Économique 51 (2): 315–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilgin, M.S., and S. Morewood. 2004. Turkey’s Reliance on Britain: British Political and Diplomatic Support for Turkey Against Soviet Demands, 1943–47. Middle Eastern Studies 40 (2): 24–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjerga, K., and T. Haaland. 2010. Development of Military Doctrine: The Particular Case of Small States. Journal of Strategic Studies 33 (4): 505–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braun, H.J. 1990. The German Economy in the Twentieth Century. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Braveboy-Wagner, J. 2003. The English-Speaking Caribbean States: A Triad of Foreign Policy. In Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior, ed. J.A.K. Hey, 31–51. Lynne Rienner: Boulder and Colorado.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Braveboy-Wagner, J. 2009. The Diplomacy of Caribbean Community States: Searching for Resilience. In The Diplomacies of Small States: Between Vulnerability and Resilience, ed. A.F. Cooper and T.M. Shaw, 96–115. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Braveboy-Wagner, J. 2010. Opportunities and Limitations of the Exercise of Foreign Policy Power by a Very Small STATE: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23 (3): 407–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briguglio, L. 1995. Small Island States and Their Economic Vulnerabilities. World Development 23 (9): 1615–1632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briguglio, L. 2007. Economic Vulnerability and Resilience: Concepts and Measurements. In Commonwealth Small States: Issues and Prospects, ed. E. Kisanga and S.J. Danchie. London: ComSec and CPA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briguglio, L., G. Cordina, and E.J. Kisanga, eds. 2006. Building the Economic Resilience of Small States. Malta and London: University of Malta and Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briguglio, L., G. Cordina, N. Farrugia, and S. Vella. 2008. Economic Vulnerability and Resilience Concepts and Measurements. UNU-WIDER Research Paper No. 2008/55.

  • Burçak, R.S. 1983. Moskova Görüşmeleri ve Dış Politikamız Üzerindeki Tesirleri. Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Yayınları.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, D.A. 2011. Challenging Contemporary Notions of Middle Power Influence: Implications of the Proliferation Security Initiative for ‘Middle Power Theory.’ Foreign Policy Analysis 7 (3): 317–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A.F., and T.M. Shaw. 2009. The Diplomacies of Small States at the Start of the Twenty-first Century: How Vulnerable? How Resilient? In The Diplomacies of Small States Between Vulnerability and Resilience, ed. A.F. Cooper and T.M. Shaw, 1–18. Houndmills: Palgrave.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Criss, N.B. 2017. Turkey’s Foreign Policies During the Interwar Period (1923–1939). In Turkish Foreign Policy: International Relations, Legality and Global Reach, ed. P. Gözen Ercan, 17–38. Cham: Palgrave.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Crowards, T. 2002. Defining the Category of ‘Small’ States. Journal of International Development 14 (2): 143–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demas, E.W. 1965. The Economics of Development in Small Countries with Special Reference to the Caribbean. Montreal: McGill University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Documents on German Foreign Policy. 1935. Ser. C, Vol. 4, No. 26, Unsigned Memorandum, 12 April 1935.

  • Documents on German Foreign Policy. 1937. Ser. D, Vol. 5, No. 535, Weizsacker to Keller (Ankara), 16 July 1937.

  • East, M. 1973. Size and Foreign Policy Behaviour: A Test of Two Models. World Politics 25 (4): 556–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erich Reiter, E., and H. Heinz Gärtner, eds. 2001. Small States and Alliances. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • FRUS. 1934. Europe, Near East and Africa, Vol. II, The Ambassador in Turkey (Skinner) to the Secretary of State, 1 June 1934, 963–964.

  • FRUS. 1934. Europe, Near East and Africa, Vol. II, The Ambassador in Turkey (Skinner) to the Secretary of State, 22 May 1934, 961–962.

  • Foreign Office. 1939. Inloit to Ministry of Economic Warfare on 15th October 1939 FO/8371003, Great Britain, National Archives, London Kew Gardens.

  • Foreign Office. 1940. Russell to Moore 30th April 1940, FO/837/1009, Great Britain, National Archives, London Kew Gardens.

  • Fox, A.B. 1959. The Power of Small States: Diplomacy in World War II. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frei, D. 1977. Kleinstaatliche Außenpolitik als Umgang mit Abhängigkeit. In Die Schweiz in einer sich wandelnden Welt, ed. K. Zemanek, 201–225. Zürich: Schulthess Polygraphischer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedensburg, F. 1943. Die Rohstoffe und Energiequellen im neuen Europa. Berlin and Oldenburg: Gerhard Stalling Verlagsbuchhandlung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerger, H.B. 1975. Small States: A Tool for Analysis. The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations 15: 108–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gitelson, S.A. 1974. Why do Small States Break Diplomatic Relations with Outside Powers? Lessons from the African Experience. International Studies Quarterly 18 (4): 451–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gökay, B. 2006. Soviet Eastern Policy and Turkey, 1920–1991: Soviet Foreign Policy, Turkey and Communism. New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, S.G. 2015. Export Empire: German Soft-Power in Southeastern Europe, 1890–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Güçlü, Y. 2002. Turkey’s Relations with Germany from the Conclusion of the Montreux Straits Convention up to the Outbreak of the Second World War. Belleten TTK. LXV I (245): 123–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guillaumont, P. 2010. Assessing the Economic Vulnerability of Small Island Developing States and the Least Developed Countries. Journal of Development Studies 46 (5): 828–854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, W. 2000. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, W. 2011. The Turkish Republic and its Army, 1923–1960. Turkish Studies 12 (2): 191–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, W. 2013. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handel, M. 1981. Weak States in the International System. London: Frank Cass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanf, K., and B. Soetendorp, eds. 1998. Adapting to European Integration: Small States and the European Union. London: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harici Ticaret Aylık. 1940. Statistique Mensuelle du Commerce Exterieur, Ankara: T.C. Başvekalet.

  • Harris, G. 1972. Cross-Alliance Politics: Turkey and the Soviet Union. Turkish Yearbook of International Relations 12: 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J. 1991. New Zealand and the Foreign Policy of Small States. In Beyond New Zealand II: Foreign Policy into the 1990s, ed. R. Kennaway and J. Henderson, 3–13. Longman Paul: Auckland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hershlag, Z.Y. 1954. Turkey: Achievements and Failures in the Policy of Economic Development. Kyklos 7 (4): 323–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hey, J.A.K., ed. 2003. Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior. Boulder and Colorado: Lynne Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirst, S.J. 2013. Anti-Westernism on the European Periphery: The Meaning of Soviet-Turkish Convergence in the 1930s. Slavic Review 72 (1): 32–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirst, S.J., and O. Isci. 2020. Smokestacks and Pipelines: Russian–Turkish Relations and the Persistence of Economic Development. Diplomatic History 44 (5): 834–859.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, F. 1976. Development Problems of Small Countries. In Co-operation and Development in the Asia Pacific Region: Relations Between Large and Small Countries, ed. L.V. Castle and F. Holmes, 43–66. Tokyo: Japan Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inbar, E., and G. Sheffer. 1997. The National Security of Small States in a Changing World. London: Frank Cass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingebritsen, C.I., I. Neumann, S. Gstohl, and J. Beyer, eds. 2004. Small States in International Relations. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isci, O. 2020. The Massigli Affair and Its Context: Turkish Foreign Policy after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Journal of Contemporary History 55 (2): 271–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Işçi, O. 2020. Yardstick of Friendship: Soviet–Turkish Relations and the Montreux Convention. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 21(4): 733–762.

  • Jackh, E. 1939. The German Drive in the Balkans. International Affairs 18 (6): 763–783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jalan, B. 1982. Classification of Economies by Size. In Problems and Policies in Small States, ed. B. Jalan, 39–47. London: Croom Helm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. 2016. Iran in the Nazi New Order, 1933–1941. Iranian Studies 49 (5): 727–751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. 1937. Hitler’s Drive to the East. New York: E. P. Dutton & co. Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakazu, H. 1994. Sustainable Development of Small Island Economies. New York: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katzenstein, P.J. 1985. Small States in World Markets: Industrial Policy in Europe. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennan, J., and M. Cali. 2009. The Global Downturn and Trade Prospects for Small States, 1–7. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keohane, R.O. 1969. Lilliputians’ Dilemmas: Small States in International Politics. International Organization 23 (2): 291–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keohane, R.O. 1971. The Big Influence of Small Allies. Foreign Policy 2: 161–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keylor, W.R. 2001. The Twentieth Century World: An International History. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinross, L. 1993. Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kisanga, E.J., and S.J. Danchie, eds. 2007. Commonwealth Small States: Issues and Prospects. London: Commonwealth Secretariat and Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinkert, W., and K. Fall. 2011. German Offensive Plans Against the Netherlands 1916–1918. In Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940, ed. H. Amersfoort and W. Klinkert, 85–117. Brill: Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koçak, C. 1991. Türk-Alman İlişkileri (1923–1939) İki Dünya Savaşı Arasındaki Dönemde Siyasal, Kültürel Askeri ve Ekonomik İlişkiler. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, V., and D. Singer. 2001. Minor Powers, Alliances, and Armed Conflict: Some Preliminary Patterns. In Small States and Alliances, ed. E. Reiter and H. Gärtner, 15–23. Heidelberg: Physica.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kurat, Y.T. 1961. A Survey of Economic Policy in the Turco-German Trade During World War II. Belleten XXV(97): 105–112.

  • Kurečić, P., G. Kozina, and F. Kokotović. 2017. Revisiting the Definition of Small State Through the use of Relational and Quantitative Criteria. In 19th International Scientific Conference on Economic and Social Development Book of Proceedings, 10 February, Melbourne, 129–142.

  • Kuznets, S. 1960. Economic Growth of Small Nations. In The Economic Consequences of the Size of Nations, ed. E.A.G. Robinson. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labs, E.J. 1992. Do Weak States Bandwagon? Security Studies 1 (3): 383–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamoreaux, J.W. 2014. Acting Small in a Large State’s World: Russia and the Baltic States. European Security 23 (4): 565–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamoreaux, J.W., and D.J. Galbreath. 2008. The Baltic States As ‘Small States’: Negotiating The ‘East’ By Engaging The ‘West.’ Journal of Baltic Studies 39 (1): 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D., and N.J. Smith. 2008. Small States in the International Political Economy. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 97 (395): 201–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D., and N.J. Smith. 2010. Small State Discourses in the International Political Economy. Third World Quarterly 31 (7): 1091–1105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leitz, C. 2001. Sympathy for the Devil: Neutral Europe and Nazi Germany in World War II. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, B. 1968. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Commonwealth Advisory Group. 1997. A Future for Small States: Overcoming Vulnerability. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Commonwealth Secretariat/World Bank Joint Task Force on Small States. 2000. Small States: Meeting the Challenges in the Global Economy. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Luif, P. 2003. Austria: The Burdens of History. In Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior, ed. J.A.K. Hey, 95–115. Lynne Rienner: Boulder and Colorado.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, P. 1999. Editorial: The Commonwealth and Small States. The Round Table 88 (351): 1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maass, M. 2009. The Elusive Definition of the Small State. International Politics 46 (1): 65–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathisen, T. 1971. The Functions of Small States in the Strategies of Great Powers. Oslo: Universitetsfolaget.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayall, S.V. 1997. Turkey: Thwarted Ambition. McNair Papers, 56, January, 38–41.

  • McLean, D. 1985. Vulnerability: Small States in the Global Society. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikuz, I.C. 2012. Influence Small State Force Design. Carlisle, PA: United States Army War College.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Millman, B. 1995. Turkish Foreign and Strategic Policy 1934–42. Middle Eastern Studies 31 (3): 483–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millman, B. 1998. The Ill-Made Alliance: Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1934–1940. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moser, J.E. 2013. The Great Depression. In A Companion to World War II, vol. I, ed. T.W. Zeiler and D.M. DuBois, 47–62. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, I.B., and S. Gstoehl. 2004. Introduction: Lilliputians in Gulliver’s World? In Small States in International Relations, ed. C. Ingebritsen, I. Neumann, S. Gstohl, and J. Beyer, 3–36. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oğuzlu, T. 2007. Soft Power in Turkish Foreign Policy. Australian Journal of International Affairs 61 (1): 81–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pamuk, Ş. 2000. Turkey’s Response to the Great Depression in Comparative Perspective, 1929–1939, EUI Working Paper, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies No. 2000/21, Mediterranean Programme Series, 1–26.

  • Panke, D. 2010. Small States in the European Union: Coping with Structural Disadvantages. Farnham: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulin, C. 2004. German War Plans Against Denmark 1916–1918. In Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940, ed. H. Amersfoort and W. Klinkert, 119–134. Brill: Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulin, C. 2011. German War Plans Against Denmark 1916–1918. In Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940, ed. H. Amersfoort and W. Klinkert, 119–134. Brill: Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne, A. 2004. Small States in the Global Politics of Development. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 93 (3): 623–635.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payne, A. 2009. Afterword: Vulnerability as a Condition, Resilience as a Strategy. In The Diplomacies of Small States Between Vulnerability and Resilience, ed. A.F. Cooper and T.M. Shaw, 279–285. London: Palgrave.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ping, J.H. 2005. (2005) Middle Power Statecraft: Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Asia-Pacific. Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickli, J.M. 2008. European Small States’ Military Policies After the Cold War: From Territorial to Niche. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 21 (3): 307–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riklin, A. 1975. Ziele, Mittel und Strategien der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik, In Handbuch der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik, ed. A. Riklin, H. Haug, and H.C. Binswanger, 21–56. Bern: Haupt.

  • Rogers, J. 2007. The Foreign Policy of Small States: Sweden and Mosul Crisis, 1924–1925. Contemporary European History 16 (3): 349–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, R.L. 1968. Alliances and Small Powers. New York and London: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Routh, A.D. 1936. The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Black Sea Straits. In Survey of International Affairs: 1937, ed. A.J. Toynbee, 584–661. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saine, A. 2003. Gambia: “The Military and Foreign Policy.” In Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior, ed. J.A.K. Hey, 117–134. Lynne Rienner: Boulder, Colorado.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schweller, R.L. 1994. Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back in. International Security 19 (1): 88–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, R.H. 2002. In the Shadow of Law or Power? Consensus-based Bargaining and Outcomes in the GATT/WTO. International Organization 56 (2): 339–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, Z. 2011. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz, R., and A. Wivel. 2010. Small States in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities. Farnham: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussex, M. 2011. The Impotence of Being Earnest? Avoiding the Pitfalls of ‘Creative Middle Power Diplomacy.’ Australian Journal of International Affairs 65 (5): 545–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, P. 2011. The Concept of Small States in the International Political Economy. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 100 (413): 141–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, C. 1969. Statistical Typology of Micro-States and Territories: Towards a Definition of a Micro-State. United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Small States and Territories: Status and Problems. New York: Arno.

  • Taylor, A.J.P. 1974. History of World War II. London: Octopus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS). 1928. Vol I, Treaty Between the United States and Other Powers, Signed at Paris, August 27, 1928, 154–157.

  • Thorhallsson, B. 2000. The Role of Small States in the European Union. Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorhallsson, B. 2006. The Role of Small States in the European Union. In Small States in International Relations, ed. C. Ingebritsen, I. Neumann, S. Gstohl, and J. Beyer, 218–227. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorhallsson, B., and A. Wivel. 2006. Small States in the European Union: What do we Know and What Would we Like to Know? Cambridge Review of International Affairs 19 (4): 651–668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tooze, A.H. 2006. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. London: Allen Lane.

    Google Scholar 

  • Türkeş, M. 1994. The Balkan Pact and Its Immediate Implications for the Balkan States, 1930–34. Middle Eastern Studies 30 (1): 123–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Türk, F., and E. Kaya. 2017. Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türk-Alman İlişkilerinde Sıradışı Bir Aktör: Krupp Firması 1923–1990. Gazi Akademik Bakış 10 (20): 121–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulusan, Ş. 2008. Türkiye’nin Milletler Cemiyeti’ne Girişi. Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırma Dergisi 5 (16–17): 237–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNCTAD. 1997. The Vulnerability of Small Island Developing States in the Context of Globalization: Common Issues and Remedies. Geneva: UNCTAD, SIDS.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Department of State. 1948. Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Office, Washington, pp. 217–259.

  • Vere-Hodge, E.R. 1950. Turkish Foreign Policy 1918–1948. PhD thesis, Geneva University, Geneva.

  • Vital, D. 1967. The Inequality of States: A Study of Small Powers in International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vital, D. 1971. The Survival of Small States: Studies in Small Power/Great Power Conflict. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, H. 1979. Der Kleinstaat in der Weltpolitik: Aspekte der schweizerischen Aussenbeziehungen im internationalen Vergleich. Frauenfeld: Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walt, S.M. 1985. Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power. International Security 9 (4): 3–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waltz, K. 1979. Theory of International Politics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, F. 1969. The Concept of a Commitment in International Relations. The Journal of Conflict Resolution 13 (1): 39–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisband, E. 1973. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1943–1945: Small State Diplomacy and Great Power Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wivel, A., and K.J.N. Oest. 2010. Security, Profit or Shadow of the Past? Explaining the Security Strategies of Microstates. Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23 (3): 429–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of International Relations, Social Sciences University of Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

    Gürol Baba

  2. Department of International Relations, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

    Murat Önsoy

Authors
  1. Gürol Baba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Murat Önsoy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Murat Önsoy.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Baba, G., Önsoy, M. Resilience versus vulnerability: Turkey’s small power diplomacy in the 1930s. Int Polit 58, 955–975 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-021-00296-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-021-00296-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation