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The ‘Soul of an Army’: A Defence of Military Court Trials for Violations of the Law of Armed Conflict
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2020
Abstract
Military justice as a body of law was subject to much criticism in the preceding decades before undergoing significant reforms to ensure that fair trial rights could be achieved. However, modern military justice systems are appropriate mechanisms for addressing law of armed conflict (LOAC) violations committed by service members. It is argued that the goals of military justice are consistent with LOAC, and that military justice has a valid legal basis to try violations. Such trials have a large body of precedent. The purported disadvantages of military trials are sufficiently mitigated to prevent cover-ups and unfair trials. Furthermore, military justice offers several benefits that cannot be achieved in a civilian or international forum. It is concluded that although military legal systems are imperfect, their role in the enforcement of international criminal law is worthy of further debate.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press in association with The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Footnotes
My thanks to the participants of the 14th Annual Minerva/ICRC Conference on International Humanitarian Law and the editors of the Israel Law Review for their valuable feedback. The views expressed in this article are the author's personal views and should not be taken to represent the official position of the New Zealand Defence Force or New Zealand Government.
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174 Solis (n 21) 183.
175 ICTY, Prosecutor v Limaj, Judgment, IT-03-66-T, Trial Chamber II, 30 November 2005, [168].
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178 Steven Haines, ‘Northern Ireland 1968–1998’ in Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed), International Law and the Classification of Conflicts (Oxford University Press 2012) 117, 143.
179 Shannon v Fanning [1984] IR 569 (SC), 586.
180 Haines (n 178) 143.
181 Solis (n 21) 182.
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183 Liivoja (n 42).
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185 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 (UK), s 9.
186 Blackman, 2014 Sentence (n 184) [77].
187 R v Blackman [2017] EWCA Crim 190 (CMAC) (Blackman, 2017 Conviction).
188 R v Blackman [2017] EWCA Crim 325 (CMAC) (Blackman, 2017 Sentence), [21].
189 Rome Statute (n 17) art 30(1) (emphasis added).
190 eg, Criminal Law Act 1967 (UK), s 6.
191 Kate Grady and Penny Cooper, ‘Case Comment – Homicide: R v Blackman’ (2017) 7 Criminal Law Review 557, 560.
192 Re Civilian Casualty Court Martial (n 87) [156].
193 Blackman, 2017 Conviction (n 187) [114].
194 eg, Bici v Minister of Defence [2004] EWHC 786 (QB), The Times, 11 June 2004; Dow v Johnson 100 US 158 (1880); Freeland v Williams 131 US 405 (1889).
195 Lawrence v New Zealand Defence Council (1977) 1 NZCMAR 73 (CMAC), 78.
196 Assembly of States Parties, ‘Elements of Crimes’ in Official Records of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First Session, 3–10 September 2002, UN Doc ICC-ASP/1/3.
197 ICC, Prosecutor v Katanga, Confirmation of Charges, ICC-01/04-01/07, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 30 September 2008, [380].
198 Mowers v R (1953) 1 CMAR 137 (Can).
199 ICTY, Prosecutor v Kunarac, Judgment, IT-96-23, Appeals Chamber, 12 June 2002, [59].
200 ICTR, Prosecutor v Akayesu, Judgment, ICTR-96-4-A, Appeals Chamber, 1 June 2001, [443].
201 Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 287, art 4.
202 eg, ICC, Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgment on the appeal of Mr Ntaganda against the ‘Second Decision on the Defence's Challenge to the Jurisdiction of the Court in respect of Counts 6 and 9’, ICC-01/04-02/06 OA 5, Appeals Chamber, 15 June 2017; for a criticism of the ICC decision see Kevin Jon Heller, ‘ICC Appeals Chamber Says a War Crime Does Not Have to Violate IHL’, Opinio Juris, 15 June 2017, http://opiniojuris.org/2017/06/15/icc-appeals-chamber-holds-a-war-crime-does-not-have-to-violate-ihl/.
203 Dubé v R (1983) 4 CMAR 288 (Can); NZDF (n 10) vol 1, para 4.2.19.
204 Payne, No-Case Ruling (n 89) [16].
205 ibid; Payne, Sentencing Transcript (n 88) 15, 17.
206 Rasiah, Nathan, ‘The Court-Martial of Corporal Payne and Others and the Future Landscape of International Criminal Justice’ (2009) 7 Journal of International Criminal Justice 177CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 184.
207 eg, Ferriday v Military Board (1973) 129 CLR 252; Cheeseman v R [2019] EWCA Crim 149, [2019] 1 WLR 3621 (CMAC); Kucek v R (1954) 1 CMAR 229 (Can); US v Cannon 74 MJ 746 (Army Ct Crim App 2015).
208 eg, Butler v R (1954) 1 CMAR 241 (Can); Burns v Wilson 346 US 137 (1952); Lawrence v A-G (1999) 1 NZCMAR 341 (CA).
209 LeBlanc v R 2011 CMAC 2; Re Potter's Appeal (1980) 43 FLR 329 (Cts-Mtl App Trib); Re Lamperd and the Courts Martial Appeal Tribunal (1983) 46 ALR 371 (HCA).
210 R v Payne, Charge Sheet, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldlwa/50719ws1.pdf.
211 AP I (n 62) art 87(1); Rome Statute (n 17) art 28.
212 Payne, No-Case Ruling (n 89) [38].
213 ibid [66]; Rasiah (n 206) 184–85.
214 Rasiah (n 206) 192.
215 eg, NZDF (n 27) vol. 4, para 17.4.1–17.4.6.
216 eg, AFDA (n 11) s 39.
217 eg, Ellams v R (Summary Appeal Court NZ, 11 October 2013); Nicholls v R (Summary Appeal Court NZ, 13 September 2013); Nicholls v R (No 2) (Summary Appeal Court NZ, 29 April 2014).
218 Re Civilian Casualty Court Martial (n 87) [152]–[156].
219 Brocklebank (n 82).
220 Re Civilian Casualty Court Martial (n 87) [20]; HCJ 3003/18, Yesh Din v IDF Chief of Staff (Supreme Court of Israel, 24 May 2018).
221 Solis (n 21) 474.
222 Warden v Bailey (n 20) 89; Lawrence v New Zealand Defence Council (n 195) 78.
223 eg, Fitch v R (1954) 1 CMAR 249 (Can); Parker v Levy 417 US 733 (1974); Stuart v Chief of Army [2003] ADFDAT 3, (2003) 177 FLR 158.
224 R v Mathieu (CMAC Canada, 6 November 1995).
225 See, eg, Heaphy, Matthew, ‘Does the United States Really Prosecute Its Service Members for War Crimes? Implications for Complementarity before the International Criminal Court’ (2008) 21 Leiden Journal of International Law 165Google Scholar.