Socio-technical networks modulate on-farm technological innovations in wool production of North Patagonia, Argentina

Highlights

• We quantitatively assessed the interplay between farmers and shearing contractors.

• The pre-lambing shearing period concentrated most of total wool shorn in the season.

• The shearing contractors activity was higher during pre-lambing shearing period.

• Negotiation processes among social actors influence farm practices like date of shearing.

• Socio-technical networks challenge on-farm technological innovation processes.

Abstract

Socio-technical networks in the agricultural sector are complex and are key in technological innovation processes. Some relevant on-farm management decisions depend on a negotiation process involving different factors, some of which include the interplay between farmers and off-farm services. We assessed the role of the relationships between farms and shearing contractors, with respect to the influence in the adoption of pre-lambing wool shearing at farm-level in Northern Patagonia, Argentina. In particular, we analysed quantitative data on the amount and quality of pre- and post-lambing shearing of wool and the working activity of shearing services by focusing on the date of shearing as a key decision, which interconnects them. The first two months of the shearing season were associated with pre-lambing shearing, for which the simultaneous activity of the shearing contractors was higher. The last two months of the shearing season were associated with post-lambing shearing, which reached a fourth portion of total wool shorn as well as lower wool quality. Results are discussed with respect to the factors constraining changes in such periods and in functional features of the socio-technical networks, which have consequences on pre-lambing shearing adoption. A combination of environmental, productive, and social factors may be limiting further adoption of pre-lambing shearing. The socio-technical networks approach offers new insights for a more comprehensive understanding of on-farm technological adoption. We emphasize the role of socio-technical networks in modulating technological innovation processes at a farm level.

Introduction

Technological innovation is frequently considered as one the major driving forces for increasing the agricultural sector's productivity, profitability, food security and sustainability (OECD, 2013). Across different agricultural activities and regions, many technological innovations are oriented at a farm-level. Hence, technological adoption relies on the ultimate decisions of farmers (e.g. Knowler and Bradshaw, 2007; Derpsch et al., 2010; Burton et al., 2019; Kaler and Ruston, 2019; Zampaligré and Fuchs, 2019). However, other studies address the farmer's advisory component (Le Gal et al., 2011; Frank et al., 2018), the farm workforce (Cofre-Bravo et al., 2019) or the social capital (Knowler and Bradshaw, 2007), as playing roles in on-farm innovation processes. On the other hand, increased attention is given to collective learning and innovation platforms (Morriss et al., 2006; Osorio-Garcia et al., 2020), rural extension services (Landini, 2016), organizational innovations and cooperative processes (Landini et al., 2017) in the promotion of technological, commercial, or productive changes, both in agricultural systems and rural development. Whereas there is recognition that a complex network of stakeholders interacts in the different agricultural sectors, few studies aim at tackling the interplay between farmers and services contractors regarding the impact on innovation processes at a farm level.

Socio-technical networks refer to the interrelatedness among people, organizations, institutions, and a range of technologies that creates the conditions for successful (or unsuccessful) system performance (Elzen et al., 1996). This approach highlights the relevance the technology has in the links between social actors (Weerasinghe et al., 2020). The wool industry is a complex sector involving a diversity of social actors, whose performance depends on the interactions among different stakeholders such as farmers, shearing contractors and wool conditioners, extension agents, scientists, veterinary consultants, brokers, textile industry, exporters, and policy makers (Champion and Fearne, 2001; Cottle, 2010; Pawson and Perkins, 2013). From the perspective of wool production, many technological innovations have also been centred on a farm-level approach, since farms as individual production units are the end-core focus of innovation and quality improvement for sheep production. A main premise supporting this approach is that the aggregate results of innovations occurring at a farm level will derive in a global improvement of sheep wool and meat production and quality. Examples of these innovations are breeding programs aimed at improving farm animal traits (Gardner et al., 2010), animal shearing techniques (Dabiri et al., 1996; Mueller, 2015), shelters for lamb survival (Pollard, 1999), pasture management for immediate post shearing periods (Husain et al., 1997), or nutritional strategic supplementation of ewes (Nottle et al., 1998). Besides, there are empirical results supporting the effectiveness of organizational improvement such as doubled prices obtained in associated sales as compared to individual sales (Easdale and Rosso, 2010), community-based breeding programs improving desired animal traits (Gizaw et al., 2009; Haile et al., 2019) or community-based animal health programs reducing livestock mortality (Hüttner et al., 2001). However, studies focusing on the impact of the interplay between farmers and services suppliers such as wool shearing contractors has on farm innovations is still lacking.

In sheep farming systems, wool harvesting is a highly relevant productive moment, for which date of shearing is a key management decision, with multiple productive and economic consequences, even under quite different environmental and farming contexts (Nedkvitne, 1972; Vipond et al., 1987; Dabiri et al., 1996; Kenyon et al., 2003; Denicolo et al., 2008; Campbell et al., 2011; Mueller, 2015). In Patagonia, as in many other regions worldwide, traditional shearing is usually done once a year after lambing (Dyrmundsson, 1991; Parker et al., 1991; Campbell, 2006). Hence, pre-lambing shearing of sheep is a well-documented technological innovation in cold and temperate climates (Dyrmundsson, 1991; Dabiri, 1996; Campbell et al., 2011; Mueller, 2015; De Barbieri et al., 2018), with significant benefits in terms of survival of lambs and quality of wool, while it offers no increased risk of death if certain precautions are taken (Mueller, 2015). Due to these productive benefits, pre-lambing shearing has been adopted progressively during the last three decades, reaching about 40% of farms in Patagonia (Mueller, 2015). Pre-lambing shearing is appreciated by the textile industry and is rewarded with a higher price when compared to post-lambing shearing wools (SIPyM, 2019). The advantages and disadvantages of this technology were long studied in relation to the environment and features of the farming system. In particular, with a focus posed on these internal factors, the aim was centred on the impacts on sheep productivity indicators such as birthweight, survival of lambs, clean wool growth rate and staple strength of fibres (Dabiri et al., 1996; Kenyon et al., 2003; Campbell et al., 2009; De Barbieri et al., 2018). To the best of our knowledge, scarce attention was directed to the role of the relationships between farms and off-farm services affecting wool harvest. In particular, we propose that socio-technical networks, defined by the interconnection between farmers and shearing contractors, also modulate on-farm technological innovation processes.

Date of shearing, as many other farm practices, emerges as the outcome of a negotiation process among different factors (Vanclay et al., 2006). For instance, instead of just farm internal factors as mentioned above, the negotiation process also involves other external aspects such as markets, climate, media, service suppliers (e.g. shearing contractors, wool conditioners, rural extension), neighbours' behaviour and decisions, cultural and historical practices. As a step forward in including other factors influencing farm innovations, we emphasize that date of shearing is a result of a negotiation process mediated by a seasonally socio-technical networks based on the interconnection between farmers and shearing contractors. In Patagonia, much of the wool harvesting relies on the shearing contractors' infrastructure, their work force, specialized skills, knowledge, equipment, and financial resources. The Argentine Wool Quality Improvement Program (PROLANA, in Spanish) has established wool conditioning procedures, training courses and annual evaluation for shearers and wool handlers, shearing contractors’ qualification and monitoring, aimed at improving wool harvesting and presentation under international standards. Whereas PROLANA shearing is the most frequent, other types of shearing services in North Patagonia include non-registered contractors, solidary (i.e. mutual shearing aids among neighbours) and cooperative shearing at local scales. Our premise is that date of shearing is not only dependent on farmers' management decisions, but also on shearing contractors’ factors such as their equipment, financial resources, harvesting scheduling, their labour capacity and logistic issues influencing movements among farms. We aimed at studying the functioning of the seasonal socio-technical networks comprised by sheep farmers and shearing contractors in North Patagonia, with respect to the influence in the adoption of pre-lambing shearing at farm-level. In particular, we analysed quantitative data on the amount and quality of pre- and post-lambing shearing wool and the working activity of shearing services by focusing on the date of shearing as a key decision, which interconnects them. Research was guided by the following questions: i) how is wool shearing service among farms distributed in space and time during a shearing season? and ii) which are the relationships among number and size of farms, number of shearing contractors and working activity during pre- and post-lambing shearing periods? Results are discussed in the light of new insights in relation to challenges and constraints that may be limiting further adoption of farm-level technological proposals such as pre-lambing shearing in sheep farming systems in North Patagonia. We emphasize the need for future research on the roles of socio-technical networks in innovation processes.