No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
A Preliminary Exploration of Behaviours Associated with Negative Urgency in Individuals High and Low in Chronic Worry
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 March 2021
Abstract
While chronic worry is typically associated with cautious and harm-avoidant behaviours, there is evidence that people high in chronic worry are characterised by negative urgency (NU), that is, the propensity to act rashly when experiencing negative affect. The present study was a preliminary examination of how rash action and impulsive decision-making manifest for chronic worriers compared to individuals low in worry. In total, 93 participants who endorsed high and low worry and NU responded to open-ended questions about their experience of NU on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Themes were identified using a data-driven approach. Participants high in chronic worry endorsed significantly greater NU compared to those low in worry. However, the types of NU behaviours were similar across participants, with a majority of responses involving initiating interpersonal conflict. Other themes included spending money, excessive eating, alcohol use, and aggressive behaviours. The manifestations of NU were largely consistent with those described in the model of NU. Although individuals higher in chronic worry engaged in NU behaviours to a greater extent, the types of behaviours were similar to those reported by people lower in worry. More research is needed to understand the characteristics of NU-motivated behaviour in individuals high in chronic worry.
- Type
- Standard Paper
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Australian Association for Cognitive and Behaviour Therapy
References
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andrews, G, Hobbs, MJ, Borkovec, TD, Beesdo, K, Craske, MG, Heimberg, RG, …, Stanley, MA (2010). Generalised worry disorder: A review of DSM-IV generalised anxiety disorder and options for DSM-V. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 134–147. doi:10.1002/da.20658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anestis, MD, Selby, EA and Joiner, TE (2007). The role of urgency in maladaptive behaviors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 3018–3029. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anestis, MD, Smith, AR, Fink, EL and Joiner, TE (2009). Dysregulated eating and distress: Examining the specific role of negative urgency in a clinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, 390–397. doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9201-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardone-Cone, AM, Butler, RM, Balk, MR and Koller, KA (2016). Dimensions of impulsivity in relation to eating disorder recovery. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49, 1027–1031. doi:10.1002/eat.22579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Behar, E, Alcaine, O, Zuellig, AR and Borkovec, TD (2003). Screening for generalized anxiety disorder using the Penn State Worry Questionnaire: A receiver operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 25–43. doi:10.1016/s0005-7916(03)00004-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belzer, KD, D'Zurilla, TJ and Maydeu-Olivares, A (2002). Social problem solving and trait anxiety as predictors of worry in a college student population. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 573–585. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00173-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berenbaum, H (2010). An initiation-termination two-phase model of worrying. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 962–975.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birrell, J, Meares, K, Wilkinson, A and Freeston, M (2011) Toward a definition of intolerance of uncertainty: A review of factor analytical studies of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Clinical Psychology Review 31, 1198–1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borkovec, TD (1994). The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In Davey, G and Tallis, F (Eds.), Worrying: Perspectives on theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 5–35). Sussex, UK: Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Borkovec, TD (2002). Life in the future versus life in the present. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 76–80. doi:10.1093/clipsy.9.1.76.Google Scholar
Borkovec, TD, Newman, MG, Pincus, AL and Lytle, R (2002). A component analysis of cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder and the role of interpersonal problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 288–298. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.2.288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borkovec, TD, Alcaine, O and Behar, E (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In Heimberg, RG, Turk, CL and Mennin, DS (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 77–108). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Braun, V and Clarke, V (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breitholtz, E, Johansson, B and Öst, LG (1999). Cognitions in generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder patients: A prospective approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 533–544. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00147-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brosschot, JF, Gerin, W and Thayer, JF (2006). The perseverative cognition hypothesis: A review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, TA, Antony, MM and Barlow, DH (1992). Psychometric properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorder sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 33–37. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90093-v.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cougle, JR, Timpano, KR and Goetz, AR (2012). Exploring the unique and interactive roles of distress tolerance and negative urgency in obsessions. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 515–520. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cyders, MA and Smith, GT (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 807–828. doi:10.1037/a0013341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davey, GC (1993). A comparison of three worry questionnaires. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 51–56. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(93)90042-s.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dear, BF, Titov, N, Sunderland, M, Mcmillan, D, Anderson, T, Lorian, C and Robinson, E (2011) Psychometric comparison of the generalized anxiety disorder scale-7 and the Penn State Worry Questionnaire for measuring response during treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 40, 216–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deckman, T and DeWall, CN (2011). Negative urgency and risky sexual behaviors: A clarification of the relationship between impulsivity and risky sexual behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 674–678. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deschênes, SS, Dugas, MJ, Fracalanza, K and Koerner, N (2012). The role of anger in generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 41, 261–271. doi:10.1080/16506073.2012.666564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickson, JM and MacLeod, AK (2004). Approach and avoidance goals and plans: Their relationship to anxiety and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 415–432. doi:10.1023/B:COTR.0000031809.20488.ee.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dir, AL, Karyadi, K and Cyders, MA (2013). The uniqueness of negative urgency as a common risk factor for self-harm behaviors, alcohol consumption, and eating problems. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2158–2162. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dugas, MJ, Gagnon, F, Ladouceur, R and Freeston, MH (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: A preliminary test of a conceptual model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 215–226. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00070-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dvorak, RD, Pearson, MR and Kuvaas, NJ (2013). The five-factor model of impulsivity-like traits and emotional lability in aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 222–228. doi:10.1002/ab.21474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eng, W and Heimberg, RG (2006). Interpersonal correlates of generalized anxiety disorder: Self versus other perception. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 380–387. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2005.02.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fossati, A, Gratz, KL, Maffei, C and Borroni, S (2014). Impulsivity dimensions, emotion dysregulation, and borderline personality disorder features among Italian nonclinical adolescents. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 1, 1–5. doi:10.1186/2051-6673-1-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fracalanza, K, Koerner, N, Deschênes, SS and Dugas, MJ (2014). Intolerance of uncertainty mediates the relation between generalized anxiety disorder symptoms and anger. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 43, 122–132. doi:10.1080/16506073.2014.888754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fresco, DM, Mennin, DS, Heimberg, RG and Turk, CL (2003). Using the Penn State Worry Questionnaire to identify individuals with generalized anxiety disorder: A receiver operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2003.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gagnon, J, Daelman, S and McDuff, P (2013). Correlations of impulsivity with dysfunctional beliefs associated with borderline personality. North American Journal of Psychology, 15, 165–178.Google Scholar
Gay, P, Schmidt, RE and Van der Linden, M (2011). Impulsivity and intrusive thoughts: Related manifestations of self-control difficulties? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 293–303. doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9317-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillis, MM, Haaga, DA and Ford, GT (1995). Normative values for the beck anxiety inventory, fear questionnaire, Penn State Worry Questionnaire, and social phobia and anxiety inventory. Psychological Assessment, 7, 450–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grillon, C, Robinson, OJ, O'connell, K, Davis, A, Alvarez, G, Pine, DS and Ernst, M (2017). Clinical anxiety promotes excessive response inhibition. Psychological Medicine, 47, 484–494. doi:10.1017/S0033291716002555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grupe, DW and Nitschke, JB (2013). Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: An integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Neuroscience, 14, 488–501. doi:10.1038/nrn3524.Google ScholarPubMed
Hagenaars, MA, Oitzl, M and Roelofs, K (2014). Updating freeze: Aligning animal and human research. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 165–176. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.07.021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, DJ and Schwarz, N (2016). Attentive Turkers: MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than do subject pool participants. Behavior Research Methods, 48, 400–407. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0578-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, S, Hirsch, C and Mathews, A (2008). Restriction of working memory capacity during worry. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 712–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilbert, A and Tuschen-Caffier, B (2007). Maintenance of binge eating through negative mood: A naturalistic comparison of binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40, 521–530. doi:10.1002/eat.20401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, CR and Mathews, A (2012). A cognitive model of pathological worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 636–646. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.06.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horton, JJ and Chilton, LB (2010). The Labor Economics of Paid Crowdsourcing. In Proceedings of the 11th ACM conference on electronic commerce (pp. 209–218). doi:10.1145/1807342.1807376CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, AJ, Milich, R, Lynam, DR and Charnigo, RJ (2012). Negative urgency, distress tolerance, and substance abuse among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 1075–1083. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.04.017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahat, A, Hong, M and Fox, NA (2011). Behavioural inhibition: Is it a risk factor for anxiety? International Review of Psychiatry, 23, 248–257. doi:10.3109/09540261.2011.590468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lai, HMX, Cleary, M, Sitharthan, T and Hunt, GE (2015). Prevalence of comorbid substance use, anxiety and mood disorders in epidemiological surveys, 1990–2014: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leigh, E and Hirsch, CR (2011). Worry in imagery and verbal form: Effect on residual working memory capacity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 99–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovibond, SH and Lovibond, PF (1995a). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales, 2nd ed. Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia.Google Scholar
Lovibond, PF and Lovibond, SH (1995b). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynam, DR, Whiteside, SP, Smith, GT and Cyders, MA (2006). The UPPS-P: Assessing five personality pathways to impulsive behavior. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University. Unpublished report.Google Scholar
Macatee, RJ, Allan, NP, Gajewska, A, Norr, AM, Raines, AM, Albanese, BJ, …, Cougle, JR (2016). Shared and distinct cognitive/affective mechanisms in intrusive cognition: An examination of worry and obsessions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40, 80–91. doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9714-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, AE, Hobbs, MJ, Newby, JM, Williams, AD, Sunderland, M and Andrews, G (2016). The Worry Behaviors Inventory: Assessing the behavioral avoidance associated with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 203, 256–264. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.06.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, AE, Hobbs, MJ, Newby, JM, Williams, AD and Andrews, G (2018). Psychometric properties of the Worry Behaviors Inventory: Replication and extension in a large clinical and community sample. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 46, 84–100. doi:10.1017/S1352465817000455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malivoire, BL (2020). Exploring DBT skills training as a treatment avenue for generalized anxiety disorder. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. doi:10.1111/cpsp.12339.Google Scholar
Malivoire, BL, Marcos, M, Pawluk, EJ, Tallon, K, Kusec, A and Koerner, N (2019a). Look before you leap: The role of negative urgency in appraisals of ambiguous and unambiguous scenarios in individuals high in generalized anxiety disorder symptoms. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 3, 1–24. doi:10.1080/16506073.2018.1508247.Google Scholar
Malivoire, BL, Stewart, KE, Tallon, K, Ovanessian, M, Pawluk, EJ and Koerner, N (2019b). Negative urgency and generalized anxiety disorder symptom severity: The role of self-reported cognitive processes. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 145, 58–63. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McElroy, SL, Keck, PE, Pope, HG and Smith, JMR (1994). Compulsive buying: A report of 20 cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 242–248.Google ScholarPubMed
McEvoy, PM, Watson, H, Watkins, ER and Nathan, P (2013). The relationship between worry, rumination, and comorbidity: Evidence for repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic construct. Journal of Affective Disorders, 151, 313–320. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.06.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mennin, DS (2006). Emotion regulation therapy: An integrative approach to treatment-resistant anxiety disorders. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 36, 95–105. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9055-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennin, DS, Heimberg, RG, Turk, CL and Fresco, DM (2005) Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 43, 1281–1310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, TJ, Miller, ML, Metzger, RL and Borkovec, TD (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487–495. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, J, Flory, K, Lynam, D and Leukefeld, C (2003). A test of the four-factor model of impulsivity-related traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 1403–1418. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00122-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miltenberger, RG, Redlin, J, Crosby, R, Stickney, M, Mitchell, J, Wonderlich, S, …, Smyth, J (2003). Direct and retrospective assessment of factors contributing to compulsive buying. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0005-7916(03)00002-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molina, ST and Borkovec, TD (1994).
The Penn State Worry Questionnaire: Psychometric properties and associated characteristics. In Davey, G. C. L. and Tallis, F. (eds), Worrying: Perspectives on theory, assessment and treatment. New York: Wiley, pp. 265–283.Google Scholar
Newman, MG and Erickson, TM (2010). Generalized anxiety disorder. In Beck, JG (Ed.), Interpersonal processes in the anxiety disorders: Implications for understanding psychopathology and treatment (pp. 235–259). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, MG, Zuellig, AR, Kachin, KE, Constantino, MJ, Przeworski, A, Erickson, T and Cashman-McGrath, L (2002). Preliminary reliability and validity of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire-IV: A revised self-report diagnostic measure of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 33, 215–233. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(02)80026-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, MG, Castonguay, LG, Borkovec, TD, Fisher, AJ, Boswell, JF, Szkodny, LE and Nordberg, SS (2011). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder with integrated techniques from emotion-focused and interpersonal therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 171–181. doi:10.1037/a0022489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Guinn, TC and Faber, RJ (1989). Compulsive buying: A phenomenological exploration. The Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 147–157. doi:10.1086/209204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawluk, EJ and Koerner, N (2013). A preliminary investigation of impulsivity in generalized anxiety disorder. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 732–737. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawluk, EJ and Koerner, N (2016). The relationship between negative urgency and generalized anxiety disorder symptoms: The role of intolerance of negative emotions and intolerance of uncertainty. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 29, 606–615. doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1134786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawluk, EJ, Koerner, N, Tallon, K and Antony, MM (2017). Unique correlates of problem solving effectiveness in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41, 881–890. doi:10.1007/s10608-017-9861-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peer, E, Vosgerau, J and Acquisti, A (2014). Reputation as a sufficient condition for data quality on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Behaviour Research Methods, 46, 1023–2031. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0434-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, JR, Upton, BT and Baer, RA (2013). Brief report: Relationships between facets of impulsivity and borderline personality features. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27, 547–552. doi:10.1521/pedi_2012_26_044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, EM, Bowen, R and Balbuena, L (2019). Mood instability and trait anxiety as distinct components of Eysenckian neuroticism with differential relations to impulsivity and risk taking. Journal of Personality Assessment, 1–11. doi:10.1080/00223891.2019.1569528.Google ScholarPubMed
Pincus, AL and Borkovec, TD (1994). Interpersonal Problems in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Preliminary Clustering of Patients’ Interpersonal Dysfunction. In Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American psychological society, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Przeworski, A, Newman, MG, Pincus, AL, Kasoff, MB, Yamasaki, AS, Castonguay, LG and Berlin, KS (2011). Interpersonal pathoplasticity in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 286–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raines, AM, Short, NA, Fuller, KL, Allan, NP, Oglesby, ME and Schmidt, NB (2016). Hoarding and depression: The mediating role of perceived burdensomeness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 83, 24–28. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.08.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roemer, L, Molina, S and Borkovec, TD (1997). An investigation of worry content among generally anxious individuals. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 314–319. doi:10.1097/00005053-199705000-00005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sagliano, L, Cappuccio, A, Trojano, L and Conson, M (2014). Approaching threats elicit a freeze-like response in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 561, 35–40. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.12.038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salters-Pedneault, K, Roemer, L, Tull, MT, Rucker, L and Mennin, DS (2006). Evidence of broad deficits in emotion regulation associated with chronic worry and generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 469–480. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9055-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzer, S, Pincus, AL, Winkelbach, C, Leichsenring, F and Leibing, E (2011). Interpersonal subtypes and change of interpersonal problems in the treatment of patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A pilot study. Psychotherapy, 48, 304–310. doi:10.1037/a0022013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Settles, RF, Cyders, M and Smith, GT (2010). Longitudinal validation of the acquired preparedness model of drinking risk. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 24, 198–208. doi:10.1037/a0017631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Settles, RE, Fischer, S, Cyders, MA, Combs, JL, Gunn, RL and Smith, GT (2012). Negative urgency: A personality predictor of externalizing behavior characterized by neuroticism, low conscientiousness, and disagreeableness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 160–172. doi:10.1037/a0024948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sexton, KA and Dugas, MJ (2009). Defining distinct negative beliefs about uncertainty: Validating the factor structure of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Psychological Assessment, 21, 176–186. doi:10.1037/a0015827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, DN, Chandler, J and Mueller, PA (2013). Using Mechanical Turk to study clinical populations. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 213–220. doi:10.1177/2167702612469015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, GT and Cyders, MA (2016). Integrating affect and impulsivity: The role of positive and negative urgency in substance use risk. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 163, 3–12. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svihra, M and Katzman, MA (2004). Behavioural inhibition: A predictor of anxiety. Paediatrics & Child Health, 9, 547–550. doi:10.1093/pch/9.8.547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tallis, F and Eysenck, MW (1994). Worry: Mechanisms and modulating influences. Behavior Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22, 37–56. doi:10.1017/S1352465800011796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tylka, TL, Russell, HL and Neal, AA (2015). Self-compassion as a moderator of thinness-related pressures’ associations with thin-ideal internalization and disordered eating. Eating Behaviors, 17, 23–26. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.12.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welch, S, Osborne, TL and Pryzgoda, J (2010). Augmenting exposure-based treatment for anxiety disorders with principles and skills from dialectical behavior therapy. In Sookman, D and Leahy, RL (Eds.), Treatment resistant anxiety disorders: Resolving impasses to symptom remission (pp. 161–197). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wells, A (1995). Meta-cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 301–320. doi:10.1017/S1352465800015897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenzel, KR, Weinstock, J, Vander Wal, JS and Weaver, TL (2014). Examining the role of negative urgency in a predictive model of bulimic symptoms. Eating Behaviors, 15, 343–349. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.04.014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whisman, MA, Sheldon, C and Goering, P (2000). Psychiatric disorders and dissatisfaction with social relationships: Does type of relationship matter? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 803–808. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiteside, SP and Lynam, DR (2001). The five factor model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669–689. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00064-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteside, U, Chen, E, Neighbors, C, Hunter, D, Lo, T and Larimer, M (2007). Difficulties regulating emotions: Do binge eaters have fewer strategies to modulate and tolerate negative affect? Eating Behaviors, 8, 162–169. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.04.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, TA and Clark, LA (2000). Toward DSM-V and the classification of psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 946–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woody, S and Rachman, S (1994). Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) as an unsuccessful search for safety. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 743–753. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(94)90040-X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar