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Sonic Boom: From the Physics of Nonlinear Waves to Acoustic Ecology (a Review)

  • NONLINEAR ACOUSTICS
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Abstract

A history of the topic is presented. First, information is given about the development of supersonic aviation. Then, the history of studying the phenomenon of sonic boom generated by flying bullets and projectiles is briefly described. The results of the renowned aeroacoustic scientists K. Doppler and E. Mach are presented, as well as little-known historical facts found in old foreign sources. The need for correct use of the term “sonic boom” is pointed out, which is not limited to aviation acoustics problems, but is inherent to many natural and technogenic phenomena. A 100-year priority of the acoustic effect over its weaker optical counterpart, Vavilov–Cherenkov radiation, is mentioned. Problems related to calculating the generation of perturbations in the interaction of transonic and supersonic flows with real bodies are described: the need to take into account the details of the shape of the aerodynamic profile, peculiarities in the behavior of the boundary layer, the formation of shock waves, generation of flow turbulence, and the kinetics (relaxation and dissociation) of atmospheric gases. The phenomenon of wave resonance, responsible for the formation of the boom when breaking the sound barrier, is discussed. Nonlinear processes in N-wave formation in the propagation of complexly shaped signal are described. The influence of the main effects distorting the N-shaped profile is explained: diffraction, focusing, and multiple relaxation phenomena broadening the shock front. The theory of N-waves in an inhomogeneous medium is discussed. Examples of ray patterns in a standard atmosphere and in the region behind the turbulent boundary layer are constructed. Calculation methods based on nonlinear geometric acoustics and nonlinear quasioptics approximations are presented. Problems related to the consequences of sonic booms and their harmful effects on the environment, structures, and living organisms are indicated. An extensive bibliography and a list of fundamental reviews in the domestic and foreign literature are presented.

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Notes

  1. Mach is also commonly considered the progenitor of such well-known physical concepts as Mach number, Mach cone, and Mach angle. However, these were introduced much earlier (1847, 1848) in theoretical studies by another famous physicist, Christian Doppler (see below). At the same time, these physics terms, clearly illustrated in photographs in Mach’s experiments, were in 1929, at the suggestion of the Swiss aerodynamic physicist Jacob Ackert, “tied” to Mach [27].

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Moscow State University, Department of Physics, 119991, Moscow, Russia

    O. V. Rudenko & Yu. N. Makov

  2. Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991, Moscow, Russia

    O. V. Rudenko & Yu. N. Makov

  3. Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, 123995, Moscow, Russia

    O. V. Rudenko

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX

Attached is a bibliography of English- and Russian-language review materials on sonic boom for the entire period of supersonic aviation. The order of sources is chronological. Their numbering is sequential with the addition of the letter “a.” Some sources are provided with comments.

1951–1960

1a. G. M. Lilley, R. Westley, A. H. Yates., and J. R. Busing, J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc. 57 (6), 396 (1953). See also: G. M. Lilley, R. Westley, A. H. Yates, and J. R. Busing, On some aspects of the noise propagation from supersonic aircraft, Rep. No. 71 (The College of Aeronautics, Cranfield, England, Feb., 1953). (The first review on SB published in a specialized journal. This journal review repeats actually the technical report. Both texts at the “initial level” cover the main aspects of SB, but do not touch on SB generation by a concrete aircraft. We pay attention to the absence (at that time) of a single generally accepted term for SB. The related term “boom” (without “sound”) is used).

2a. G. M. Lilley, R. Westley, A. H. Yates., and J. R. Busing, Nature 17, 994 (June 6, 1953). (The authors of [1a] published a shorter version of the same review in the prestigious journal “Nature”, while changing the term for SB).

3a. J. M. Talbot, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 158 (17), 1508 (Aug. 27, 1955). (This short review integrates for the first time the physical concepts of SB and information on its impact on the population. It is proposed here to assign the term “sonic boom” to the effect under consideration, but this term becomes generally accepted only in the next decade.)

4a. P. S. Rao, Supersonic bangs: Part I, Aeron. Quart. 7 (1), 21 (1956).

5a. P. S. Rao, Supersonic bangs: Part II, Aeron. Quart. 7 (2), 135 (1956).

6a. R.A. Struble, C.E. Stewart, E.A. Brown, and A. Ritter, Theoretical investigation of sonic boom phenomena (WADC TR 57-412. ASTIA AD 130883. Aug. 1957).

7a. D. G. Randall, Methods for estimating distributions and intensities of sonic bangs. Appendix: The propagation of sonic bangs in a non-homogeneous atmosphere (A.R.C. Tech. report R & M No. 3113, 1959).

1961–1970

8a. J. K. Power, Some considerations of sonic boom (USA, Federal Aviation Agency, Office of Plans, 1961).

9a. C. H. E. Warren and D. G. Randal, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. 1, 238 (1961).

10a. C. H. E. Warren, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. 5, 295 (1964).

11a. Proceedings of the Sonic Boom Symposium, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 39 (5, pt. 2), P. S1–S80 (1966). (Proceedings of the Symposium on SB contain 11 reviews on various aspects of the problem).

12a. Sonic boom research. Edited by A. R. Seebass. (SP-147, NASA, 1967). (Proceedings (12 articles) of a conference held at the NASA, Washington, D. C., April 12, 1967, on research on the generation and propagation of SB).

13a. H. H. Hubbard, Physics Today, 21 (2), 31 (1968).

14a. A. D. Pierce, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 44 (4), 1052 (1968).

15a. S. C. Crow, J. Fluid Mech. 37 (3), 529 (1969).

1971–1980

16a. A. R. George and K. J. Plotkin, Phys. Fluids 14 (3), 548 (1971).

17a. Yu. L. Zhilin, TsAGI Science Journal (Uchenye zapiski TsAGI) 2 (3), 1 (1971) [in Russian].

18a. A. R. Seebass and A. R. George, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 51 (2, pt. 3), 686 (1972).

19a. A. D. Pierce and D. J. Maglieri, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 51 (2, pt. 3), 702 (1972).

20a. Yu. L. Zhilin, TsAGI Proceedings (Trudy TsAGI), issue 1489, 3 (1973) [in Russian].

21a. H. W. Carlson, Simplified Sonic-Boom Prediction (TP-1122. NASA, 1978).

1981–1990

22a. C. M. Darden, Charts for determining potential minimum sonic-boom overpressures for supersonic cruise aircraft (TP-1820. NASA, 1981).

23a. K. J. Plotkin and J. Kenneth, Sonic boom prediction model for supersonic flight corridors (WR 85-25. Wyle Labs., Aug. 1985).

24a. K. J. Plotkin and J. Kenneth, Focus boom footprints for various air force supersonic operations (WR 85-22. Wyle Labs., Oct. 1985).

25a. K. P. Shepherd and C. A. Powell, Status and Capabilities of Sonic Boom Simulators (TM-87664. NASA, 1986).

26a. C. M. Darden, W. D. Hayes, A. R. George, and A. D. Pierce, Status of sonic boom methodology and understanding (CP-3027. NASA, 1989).

27a. K. J. Plotkin, Review of sonic boom theory (AIAA-89-1105, 1989).

1991–2000

28a. D. J. Maglieri and K. J. Plotkin, Sonic boom (ch. 10, P. 519-561 in: Aeroacoustics of flight vehicles - Theory and practice. V. 1: Noise Sources. NASA-RP-1258, 1991).

29a. R.A. Lee and J. M. Downing, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 99 (2), 768 (1996).

30a. R. O. Cleveland, J. P. Chambers, H. E. Bass, et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 100 (5), 3017 (1996).

31a. B. Lipkens and D. T. Blackstock, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103 (1), 148 (1998).

32a. B. Lipkens and D. T. Blackstock, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104 (1, pt. 1), 1301 (1998).

2001–2010

33a. K. J. Plotkin, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 111 (1, pt. 2), 530 (2002).

34a. J. Leatherwood, B. Sullivan, K. Shepherd, et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 111 (1, pt. 2), 586 (2002).

35a. K. J. Plotkin and D. J. Maglieri, AIAA Paper 2003-3575 (2003).

36a. Y. Makino, K. Suzuki, M. Noguchi, and K. Yoshida, J. Aircraft 41, 1413 (2003).

37a. J. Pawlowski, D. Graham, C. Boccadoro, et al., AIAA Paper 2005 - 5 (2005).

38a. D. C. Howe, AIAA Paper 1005–1014 (2005).

39a. V. V. Kovalenko and S. L. Chernyshov, TsAGI Science Journal (Uchenye zapiski TsAGI) 37 (3), 53 (2006) [in Russian].

40a. T. Feder, Physics Today 60 (4), 24 (2007).

41a. H. Yamashita and S. Obayashi, J. of Aircraft 46 (6), 1886 (2009).

42a. F. Alauzet and A. Loseille, J. Comp. Phys. 229, 561 (2010).

43a. V. I. Biryuk, M. R. Ibragimov, V. V. Kovalenko, et al., TsAGI Science Journal (Uchenye zapiski TsAGI) 41 (5), 13 (2010) [in Russian].

44a. L. R. Benson, Case 4. Softening the Sonic Boom: 50 Years of NASA Research. (pp. 180–274), from NASA’s contributions to aeronautics, ed. by R. P. Hallion (NASA SP-2010-570, 2010).

2011–2020

45a. V. M. Fomin, V. F. Chirkashenko, V. F. Volkov, and A. M. Kharitonov, Thermophysics and Aeromechanics 18, 507 (2011).

46a. M. Berci and L. Vigevano, Aerospace Sci. and Tech. 23, 280 (2012).

47a. L.R. Benson, Quieting the boom: the shaped sonic boom demonstrator and the quest for quiet supersonic flight (NASA, 2013). (The peculiarity of this book is a unified historical approach to highlighting this problem without structuring the material in separate areas. The book is an extended version of the bibliography [44a].)

48a. D. J. Maglieri, P. J. Bobbitt, K. J. Plotkin, et al., Sonic Boom: six decades of research, Technical report NASA, SP-2014-622 (Langley Research Center, 2014). (The material of the book is divided into chapters that highlight certain traditional areas of the SB problem.)

49a. R. Yamashita and K. Suzuki, Conference: AIAA Aviation, 16–20 June 2014, Atlanta, GA. AIAA 2014–2269, (2014).

50a. J. Takeno, T. Misaka, K. Shimoyama, and S. Obayashi, AIAA SciTech 5–9 Jan. 2015, Kissimmee, Florida. AIAA 2015 - 07445. (2015).

51a. M. Yamamoto, A. Hashimoto, and T. Aoyama, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 137 (4), 1857 (2015).

52a. M. A. Park and J. M. Morgenstern, AIAA Journal of Aircraft 53 (2), 578 (2016).

53a. R. Yamashita and K. Suzuki, AIAA Journal 54 (10), 3223 (2016).

54a. V. F. Volkov, Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics 90, 449 (2017).

55a. S. K. Rallabhandi, Sonic boom prediction and mitigation using three-dimensional Earth effects, Conference: 2018 Applied Aerodynamics Conference. AIAA 2018-2848 (2018).

56a. S.K. Rallabhandi, Correction for [55a], Conference: 2018 Applied Aerodynamics Conference. AIAA 2018-2848. c1 (2018).

57a. J. A. Page and A. Loubeau, CEAS Aeronautical Journal 10, 335 (2019).

58a. V. W. Sparrow, T. A. Stout, K. A. Bradley, and C. M. Hobbs, SonicBAT: Some highlights and subsequent developments, Proc. 23rd International Congress on Acoustics, 9–13 Sept. 2019, in Aachen, Germany. P. 1592–1599 (2019).

59a. B. Liebhardt, K. Lütjens, M. Swaid, et al., AIAA Aviation 2019 Forum, Dallas, Texas (2019).

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Rudenko, O.V., Makov, Y.N. Sonic Boom: From the Physics of Nonlinear Waves to Acoustic Ecology (a Review). Acoust. Phys. 67, 1–25 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063771021010036

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