The mediating role of digital informal learning in the relationship between students' digital competence and their academic performance

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104184Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Relations among digital competence (DC), digital informal learning (DIL), and academic performance (AP) are explored.

  • Structural equation modeling was used to test our hypotheses.

  • DC directly and indirectly contributed to AP. DIL mediated the relation between DC and AP.

  • To improve students’ AP, educators and curriculum designers should consider both their DC and DIL.

Abstract

Students' digital competencies are important for their academic performance. Although scholars have highlighted the importance of students' digital informal learning in developing their digital competence, the mediating role of digital informal learning between digital competence and academic performance have remained unexplored. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of digital informal learning between higher education students' digital competence and their academic performance. The data were collected from 319 students from Shiraz University in Iran. Data were analysed using structural equation modeling via AMOS. The result showed a positive effect of the students' digital competence on their digital informal learning and academic performance. Moreover, digital informal learning as the mediator variable had a positive effect on the relationship between digital competence and students' academic performance. In conclusion, to improve students’ academic performance, educators and curriculum designers should consider both their digital competence and their digital informal learning.

Introduction

The rapid development of digital technologies has spurred strong interest among scholars to employ these technologies for educational purposes, not only to facilitate learning in formal settings (Farrokhnia et al., 2019; Hassanzadeh et al., 2016; Heidari et al., 2020; Noroozi et al, 2016, 2018; Seo et al., 2021; Winkler et al., 2021) but also in informal, out of the class, settings (Chan et al., 2015; Coll & Treagust, 2015; Hubbard, 2019; Song & Lee, 2014). With the recent advent and affordance of new technologies, increasing attention has been paid to digital informal learning (DIL) and the way students learn in such settings (Reinders & Benson, 2017). In DIL, there are no time and space restrictions (Yang, 2020). Thus, DIL provides learners with new opportunities to learn anywhere at any time (Ang et al., 2018, pp. 87–101; Jin et al., 2019; Jurkovič, 2019). DIL is driven primarily by learners’ high interests and excitement because they are more motivated to learn in this technology-based learning environment (Sackey et al., 2015) and thus can better improve their academic performance (Doleck et al., 2019; Mishra, 2020).

Academic performance, as one of the most important indicators of success in universities (Mthimunye & Daniels, 2020), refers to students' ability to perform classroom tasks, problem-solving activities, and academic affairs (Hung, 2005; Yu et al., 2010). Although scholars reported that academic performance could be positively influenced by students' DIL experiences (Ali & Naylor, 2010), the empirical research on DIL is still insufficient (He & Li, 2019), especially regarding its effect on higher education students’ academic performance (Baker, 2014). The picture is also unclear when it comes to influential factors that may regulate the DIL process and outcome (Chan et al., 2015). For instance, scholars claimed that DIL demands proper digital competence (Hubbard, 2019; Nyikes, 2018) to form students' optimal learning and behavior in such a digital-based learning environment (He et al., 2018). Digital competence, as one of the key competencies for lifelong learning (see Ferrari, 2013), is supported by digital literacy (Martin & Grudziecki, 2006). Digital literacy is often referred to as media literacy focusing more on its functional dimension. Digital functional literacy or technical skills means having the practical skills needed to use digital technologies, including operational and creative skills (Falloon, 2020; Helsper et al., 2015). Although digital literacy is often used as a synonym for digital competence (Calvani et al., 2012; He & Zhu, 2017; Ilomäki et al., 2011), they have distinct roots and meanings (Iordache et al., 2017). Digital literacy refers more to a set of skills and activities to achieve digital competence in ICT (Ferrari et al., 2014). According to scholars, the scope of digital competence is beyond digital literacy (Fraillon et al., 2014; Jin et al., 2020) and includes attitude and mindset besides the skills (Janssen et al., 2013). Recent studies suggest digital competence should be replaced with digital literacy in educational contexts since digital competence pays more attention to the ethical, safety, and social dimension (Foulger et al., 2017; Lund et al., 2014) and identifies more diverse knowledge, abilities, and desires of individuals (Falloon, 2020).

Despite the importance of digital competence, so far, only a few studies have investigated the role of students' digital competence in their DIL experiences. For example, Han and Yi (2019), examined the effects of higher education students' digital competence and technology expectancy and how these two interact with cultural differences on DIL. Their results highlighted the essential role of digital competence and technology expectancy in DIL. Moreover, they showed that students' cultural differences play a mediating role in the relationship between their digital competence and DIL behaviors. Pagani et al. (2016), in their study with secondary school students, reported that digital competence had a positive impact on students’ academic performance. However, these studies have been conducted separately, and to our knowledge, no study has yet investigated the role of digital competence in both their DIL and academic performance, especially with the focus on higher education students.

As a result, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating role of DIL between digital competence and academic performance. Based on the reviewed literature (e.g., Baker, 2014; He & Li, 2019; He & Zhu, 2017; Hubbard, 2019; Mangiri et al., 2019), we postulated that there might be an asymmetric relationship between these three constructs. Thus, we first dive into the related literature to formulate different hypotheses related to the key constructs of the study. Afterward, these hypotheses are analysed by structural equation modeling for revealing possible relationships.

Section snippets

Digital informal learning and academic performance

Learning can occur in a formal or informal context. According to Meyers et al. (2013), formal learning occurs in a structured and organized educational environment and is explicitly designed in terms of time, objectives, and resources. From the learner's perspective, formal learning is intentional, which leads to degrees and certifications (Czerkawski, 2016). In contrast, informal learning occurs relatively in an unstructured and unorganized environment, mostly outside the formal classroom, and

Study design and sample

This study was explanatory by nature. The study was conducted at Shiraz University, one of the largest comprehensive higher education institutes in Iran, in the academic year 2019–2020. Based on the Cochran formula for a finite population (see Cochran, 1977), 350 students were recruited to participate in this study with 95% confidence and a 5% error level, which was also determined as an adequate sample size based on Westland's (2010) formulas. Moreover, with the effect size of 0.18, the

Preliminary analyses

Table 2 demonstrates the means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis, Cronbach's alpha, and correlations between all the research variables. The means scores of digital competence dimensions ranged from 3.39 to 3.45, the means scores of DIL dimensions ranged from 3.68 to 3.76, and the mean score of academic performance was 3.44, which were higher than the average level (3) based on a 5-point Likert scale, and they were in the third quartile (Q3). The standard deviations ranged from 0.68 to

Discussions

This study aimed to identify the mediating role of DIL between higher education students' digital competence and academic performance. In general, the study results indicated that DIL has a positive effect on students' academic performance. The analysis also confirmed that digital competence has a significant positive effect on students' DIL and academic performance. Moreover, DIL experiences contributed to students’ academic performance in two ways, (1) by a direct effect on their performance

Conclusion, limitations, and implications

The results of this study showed positive mediating role of DIL in the relationship between students' digital competence and their academic performance. Although digital competence has a direct positive effect on students' academic performance, together with DIL experiences, it yields a greater effect on their performance in their formal classes. Since the DIL plays a mediating role in the relationship between students’ digital competence and their academic performance, digital competence can

Credit author statement

The authors would like to thank you for your time and careful review on our article CAE-D-20-01164, “The Mediating Role of Digital Informal Learning in the Relationship between Students’ Digital Competence and their Academic Performance.” I ensure that all the authors (Mahboobe Mehrvarz, Elham Heidari, Mohammadreza Farrokhnia & Omid Noroozi) had the same role in Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Data curation, writing- Original draft preparation, etc. Thanks again for reviewing our

Funding

The authors received no financial support for this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the students of Shiraz University who have participated on this study.

References (118)

  • K.Y. Jin et al.

    Measuring digital literacy across three age cohorts: Exploring test dimensionality and performance differences

    Computers & Education

    (2020)
  • R. Junco

    The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities, and student engagement

    Computers and Education

    (2012)
  • R. Junco

    Too much face and not enough books: The relationship between multiple indices of Facebook use and academic performance

    Computers in Human Behavior

    (2012)
  • R. Junco et al.

    No A 4 U: The relationship between multitasking and academic performance

    Computers and Education

    (2012)
  • V. Jurkovič

    Online informal learning of English through smartphones in Slovenia

    System

    (2019)
  • P.A. Kirschner et al.

    Facebook® and academic performance

    Computers in Human Behavior

    (2010)
  • W.W. Lau

    Effects of social media usage and social media multitasking on the academic performance of university students

    Computers in Human Behavior

    (2017)
  • G. Martin et al.

    Perceived academic performance, self-esteem and locus of control as indicators of need for assessment of adolescent suicide risk: Implications for teachers

    Journal of Adolescence

    (2005)
  • S. Mishra

    Social networks, social capital, social support and academic success in higher education: A systematic review with a special focus on ‘underrepresented’students

    Educational Research Review

    (2020)
  • K.D.T. Mthimunye et al.

    Exploring the challenges and efforts implemented to improve the academic performance and success of nursing students at a university in the Western Cape

    International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences

    (2020)
  • O. Noroozi et al.

    Relations between scripted online peer feedback processes and quality of written argumentative essay

    Internet and Higher Education

    (2016)
  • O. Noroozi et al.

    Scripting for construction of a transactive memory system in a multidisciplinary CSCL environment

    Learning and Instruction

    (2013)
  • S. Park et al.

    Social relationship on problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescents in South Korea: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and self-control

    Computers in Human Behavior

    (2014)
  • S.S. Ang et al.

    Learning in the context of work in a digital age: The use of digital media in informal and formal learning contexts

    The impact of digitalization in the workplace

    (2018)
  • F. Baker

    Reflections on an informal learning environment with invocations for classroom learning in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates

    International Journal of Adolescence and Youth

    (2014)
  • A. Basantes-Andrade et al.

    Digital competences relationship between gender and generation of university professors

    International Journal of Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology

    (2020)
  • W.S. Basri et al.

    ICT adoption impact on students' academic performance: Evidence from Saudi universities

    (2018)
  • M.W. Browne et al.

    Single sample cross-validation indices for covariance structures

    Multivariate Behavioral Research

    (1989)
  • S. Buyukozturk

    Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabi, Handbook of data analysis for social sciences

    (2007)
  • M. Callanan et al.

    Informal learning

    Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science

    (2011)
  • A. Calvani et al.

    Assessing digital competence in secondary education. Issues, models and instruments. Issues in information and media literacy: Education, practice and pedagogy

    (2009)
  • S. Carretero et al.

    DigComp 2.1: The digital competence framework for citizens with eight proficiency levels and examples of use

    (2017)
  • W.G. Cochran

    Sampling techniques

    (1977)
  • S.D. Coll et al.

    Using informal learning experiences to enhance student learning outcomes in chemistry

  • M.J. Cox

    Formal to informal learning with IT: Research challenges and issues for e‐learning

    Journal of Computer Assisted Learning

    (2013)
  • B.C. Czerkawski

    Blending formal and informal learning networks for online learning

    International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

    (2016)
  • E.L. Deci et al.

    Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior

  • M. Devaux et al.

    Social disparities in hazardous alcohol use: Self-report bias may lead to incorrect estimates

    The European Journal of Public Health

    (2016)
  • T. Doleck et al.

    Social networking and academic performance: A net benefits perspective

    Education and Information Technologies

    (2019)
  • J. Dron et al.

    Teaching crowds: Learning and social media

    (2014)
  • W. El Ansari et al.

    Is alcohol consumption associated with poor perceived academic performance? Survey of undergraduates in Finland

    International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

    (2020)
  • E. Elstad et al.

    Perceptions of digital competency among student teachers: Contributing to the development of student teachers' instructional self-efficacy in technology-rich classrooms

    Education Sciences

    (2017)
  • N. Escalante Mateos et al.

    School climate and perceived academic performance: Direct or resilience-mediated relationship?

    Sustainability

    (2021)
  • J.H. Falk et al.

    Lessons without limit: How free-choice learning is transforming education

    (2002)
  • G. Falloon

    From digital literacy to digital competence: The teacher digital competency (TDC) framework

    Educational Technology Research & Development

    (2020)
  • A. Ferrari

    Digital competence in practice: An analysis of frameworks

    (2012)
  • A. Ferrari

    Digcomp: A framework for developing and understanding digital competence in europe

    (2013)
  • A. Ferrari et al.

    Digcomp: A framework for developing and understanding digital competence in europe

    (2014)
  • C. Fornell et al.

    Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error

    Journal of Marketing Research

    (1981)
  • T.S. Foulger et al.

    Teacher educator technology competencies

    Journal of Technology and Teacher Education

    (2017)
  • Cited by (61)

    • Does psychological empowerment mediate the relationship between digital competencies and job performance?

      2023, Computers in Human Behavior
      Citation Excerpt :

      In this context, these technologies can be used for knowledge creation and transfer (Leftheriotis & Giannakos, 2014), as a space for interacting and collaborating with other members of an organization across space, time, and organizational boundaries (Cao et al., 2016), developing a sense of belonging (Song et al., 2019), receiving feedback from peers (Colbert et al., 2016), acquiring new competencies to face new challenges (Mohammadyari & Singh, 2015) and improving creativity and innovation (Oldham & Da Silva, 2015), which can improve performance. Existing studies on the relationship between DC and performance have been conducted primarily in the educational field (Mehrvarz et al., 2021; Mohammadyari & Singh, 2015). Few studies have addressed this relationship in an organizational context (Mohd Abas et al., 2019; Santoso et al., 2019).

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text