Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

An investigation of under-represented MOOC populations: motivation, self-regulation and grit among 2-year college students in Korea

  • Published:
Journal of Computing in Higher Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Educators have raised concerns that massive open online courses (MOOCs) mainly serve the interests of advantaged groups. In response, this study examined underrepresented MOOC learners; namely, 2-year college students in South Korea in terms of their perceptions of MOOCs and learning readiness for MOOCs. A total of 119 Korean 2-year college students participated in the survey and their responses were analyzed. Research findings revealed that approximately 90% of participants were unaware of MOOCs, and few students had previously taken a MOOC. These results indicate that it is necessary to advertise MOOCs effectively to underrepresented learners. Importantly, most participants were optimistic about the effects of MOOCs for individual development. Some learners, however, were concerned about their lack of commitment or low self-regulation to complete MOOCs. In terms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, grit, and self-regulation, the learning readiness of 2-year college students for MOOCs was moderate. Additionally, 2-year college students preferred MOOCs with practical content offered in short study periods, and they emphasized extrinsic motivators over intrinsic ones.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and material

The data used and/or analyzed in the current study are available from the author upon request.

References

  • Alario-Hoyos, C., Estévez-Ayres, I., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Delgado Kloos, C., & Fernández-Panadero, C. (2017). Understanding learners’ motivation and learning strategies in MOOCs. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i3.2996

  • Azevedo, J., & Marques, M. M. (2017). MOOC success factors: Proposal of an analysis framework. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 16, 233–251. Retrieved from http://www.informingscience.org/Publications/3861

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 307–337). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barak, M., Watted, A., & Haick, H. (2016). Motivation to learn in massive open online courses: Examining aspects of language and social engagement. Computers & Education, 4, 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baturay, M. L. (2015). An overview of the world of MOOCs. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Science, 174(12), 427–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonk, C. J., & Lee, M. M. (2017). Motivations, achievements, and challenges of self-directed informal learners in open educational environments and MOOCs. Journal of Learning for Development, 4(1), 36–57. Retrieved from http://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/195/188

  • Bonk, C. J., Lee, M. M., Reeves, T. C., & Reynolds, T. H. (Eds.). (2015). MOOCs and open education around the world. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315751108.

  • Bozkurt, A., Akgün-Özbek, E., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2017). Trends and patterns in massive open online courses: Review and content analysis of research on MOOCs (2008–2015). The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i5.3080

  • Cho, M. H., & Heron, M. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning: The role of motivation, emotion, and use of learning strategies in students’ learning experiences in a self-paced online mathematics course. Distance Education, 36(1), 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2015.1019963

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, G., Steinmetz, A., Alcorn, B., Bennett, A., Woods, D., & Emanuel, E. J. (2013). The MOOC phenomenon: Who takes massive open online courses and why? Social Science Research Network Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2350964

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, J. A. (2017). Predicting student success in a self-paced mathematics MOOC (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cupitt, C., & Golshan, N. (2014). Participation in higher education online: Demographics, motivators, and grit (pp. 1–10). Perth, Australia: National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Curtin University.

  • Davis, J. H., & Lewin, T. (2015, January 8). Obama plan would help many go to community college free. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/09/us/politics/obama-proposes-free-community-college-education-for-some-students.html

  • DeBoer, J., Ho, A., Stump, G., & Breslow, L. (2014). Changing “courses”: reconceptualizing educational variables for massive open online courses. Educational Researcher, 43(2), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X14523038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dillahunt, T., Wang, Z., & Teasley, S. D. (2014). Democratizing higher education: Exploring MOOC use among those who cannot afford a formal education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(5), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v15i5.1841

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Scial Posychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit–S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290

  • Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903157232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emanuel, E. J. (2013). Online education: MOOCs taken by educated few. Nature, 503(342). https://doi.org/10.1038/503342a

  • Eskreis-Winkler, L., Duckworth, A. L., Shulman, E., & Beal, S. (2014). The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(36), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fong, C. J., Davis, C. W., Kim, Y., Kim, Y. W., Marriott, L., & Kim, S. (2017). Psychosocial factors and community college student success: A meta-analytic investigation. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 388–424. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fryer, J. W., & Elliot, A. J. (2008). Self-regulation of achievement goal pursuit. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning (pp. 53–75). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

  • George, D., & Mallery, P. (2010). SPSS for Windows step by step a simple guide and reference (10th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson.

  • Glass, C. R., Shiokawa-Baklan, M. S., & Saltarelli, A. J. (2016). Who takes MOOCs? New Direction for Institutional Research, 2015(167), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.20153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guilford, J. P., & Fruchter, B. (1973). Fundamental statistics in psychology and education (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

  • Handoko, E., Grosneth, S. L., McNeil, S. G., Bonk, C. J., & Robin, B. R. (2019, July). Goal setting and MOOC completion: A study on the role of self-regulated learning in student performance in massive open online courses. The International Review of Research on Open and Distributed Learning (IRRODL), 20(3), 38–58. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4270/5115

  • Hanover Research (2014). MOOC trends and implementation at community colleges. Washington, DC.

  • Herman, R. (2012). The MOOCs are coming. The Journal of Effective Teaching, 12(2), 1–3. Retrieved from http://www.uncw.edu/cte/ET/articles/Vol12_2/Editor.pdf

  • Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2014). Students’ and instructors’ use of massive open online courses (MOOCs): Motivations and challenges. Educational Research Review, 12, 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.05.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, A. D., Reich, J., Nesterko, S. O., Seaton, D. T., Mullaney, T., Waldo, J., & Chuang, I. (2014). HarvardX and MITx: The first year of open online courses (HarvardX and MITx Working Paper No. 1). doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2381263

  • Hollands, F., & Kazi, A. (2018). Benefits and costs of MOOC-based alternative credentials: 2017–2018 results from end-of-program surveys. Center for Benefit-Cost Studies of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved from https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/cc7beb_5803e625ebee463ebc6f4796027366f1.pdf

  • Hollands, F., & Kazi, A. (2019). Benefits and costs of MOOC-based alternative credentials: 2018–2019 results from end-of-program surveys. Center for Benefit-Cost Studies of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved from https://8606adb0-7829-4e6c-a502-3e181c6f3720.filesusr.com/ugd/cc7beb_a74e1be71afb4e72bb7f44adaf03d9eb.pdf

  • Jagannathan, S. (2015). Harnessing the power of open learning to share global prosperity and eradicate poverty. In C. J. Bonk, M. M. Lee, T. C. Reeves, & T. H. Reynolds (Eds.), MOOCs and open education around the world (pp. 218–231). Routledge.

  • Jaschik, S. (2013). Which new ideas to use. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/04/23/survey-documents-interest-community-colleges-moocs-and-open-educational-resources

  • James, K. P., & Christian, I. E. (2016). Learners’ readiness for xMoocs: Inquity in Nigeria. European Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology, 4(3), 16–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jo, H. (2018). Changes and challenges in the rise of mass higher education in Korea. In A. M. Wu & J. N. Hawkins (Eds.), Massification of higher education in Asia: Consequences, policy responses and changing governance (pp. 39–56). Springer.

  • Kang, J. (2008). The effects of career barriers, psychological independence, and career decision-making self-efficacy on career decision level and career preparation behavior: A comparison of 4-year-women’s university students and 2-year-college female students. (Unpublished Master's thesis). Sookmyung Women's University.

  • Kim, D. (2009). Parent–child relation on college plan and educational achievement. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 18(4), 29–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kizilcec, R. F., Piech, C., & Schneider, E. (2013). Deconstructing disengagement: analyzing learner subpopulations in massive open online courses. Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp. 170–179). New York, NY: ACM.

  • Kop, R. (2011). The challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: Learning experiences during a massive open online course. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), 19–38. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/882/1689

  • KOSIS. (2020). Basic education statistics. Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI). Retrieved from http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=334&tblId=DT_1963003_011&conn_path=I2.

  • Lambert, S. R. (2020). Do MOOCs contribute to student equity and social inclusion? A systematic review 2014–18. Computers & Education, 145,. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103693

  • Lederman, D. (2018). 650 courses and 52 degree pathways from community college OER initiative. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-learning/data/2018/04/04/650-courses-and-52-degree-pathways-community-college-oer-initiative (N.d.). .

  • Lee, J. Y. (2017). The effect of the satisfaction with major on career exploration behavior of the students in the department of airline service: Focused on the comparison between 2-year and 4-year colleges. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 8(4), 207–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y. K., & Lee, K. S. (2010). Research on forecasting the future of Korea`s junior colleges. The Journal of Vocational Education Research, 29(2), 69–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, T. (2012). Instruction for masses knocks down campus walls. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/ilPEc

  • Littlejohn, A., Hood, N., Milligan, C., & Mustain, P. (2016). Learning in MOOCs: Motivations and self-regulated learning in MOOCs. The Internet and Higher Education, 29(1), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.12.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liyanagunawardena, T. R. (2015). Massive open online courses. Humanities, 4(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.3390/h4010035

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liyanagunawardena, T. R., Adams, A. A., & Williams, S. A. (2013). MOOCs: A systematic study of the published literature 2008–2012. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 14(3), 202–227. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v14i3.1455

  • Loizzo, J., Ertmer, P. A., Watson, W. R., & Watson, S. L. (2017). Adult MOOC learners as self-directed: Perceptions of motivation, success, and completion. Online Learning, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v21i2.889

  • Lokken, F., & Mullins, C. (2014). 2013 Distance education survey results: Trends in eLearning: Tracking the impact of eLearning at community colleges. Instructional Technology Council.

  • McAuley, A., Stewart, B., Siemens, G., & Cormier, D. (2010). The MOOC model for digital practice. Retrieved from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/MOOC_Final.pdf

  • Milligan, C., & Littlejohn, A. (2017). Why study on a MOOC? The motives of students and professionals. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i2.3033

  • Papano, L. (2012). The year of the MOOCs. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/education/edlife/massive-open-online-courses-are-multiplying-at-a-rapid-pace.html

  • Park, Y., Jung, I., & Reeves, T. (2015). Learning from MOOCs: A qualitative case study from the learners’ perspectives. Educational Media International, 52(2), 72–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2015.1053286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P., & de Groot, E. (1990). Motivational and self–regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabin, E., Henderikx, M., Kalman, Y. M., & Kalz, M. (2020). What are the barriers to learners' satisfaction in MOOCs and what predicts them? The role of age, intention, self-regulation, self-efficacy and motivation. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5919

  • Rogers, E. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. Mumbai: The Free Press.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68

  • Sablina, S., Kapliy, N., Trusevich, A., & Kostikova, S. (2018). How MOOC-takers estimate learning success: Retrospective reflection of perceived benefits. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(5). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i5.3768

  • Subramaniam, T. T., Suhaimi, N. A. D., Latif, L. A., Kassim, Z. A., & Fadzil, M. (2019). MOOCs readiness. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v20i3.3913

  • Schmid, L., Manturuk, K., Simpkins, I., Goldwasser, M., & Whitfield, K. E. (2015). Fulfilling the promise: Do MOOCs reach the educationally underserved? Educational Media International, 52(2), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2015.1053288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H. (2008). Metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning: Research recommendations. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 463–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9086-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Severance, C. (2015). Learning about MOOCs by talking to students. In C. J. Bonk, M. M. Lee, T. C. Reeves, & T. H. Reynolds, T. H. (Eds.), MOOCs and open education around the world (pp. 169–179). New York, NY: Routledge.

  • Shah, D. (2019). Year of MOOC-based degrees: A review of MOOC stats and trends in 2018. Class Central. Retrieved from https://www.class-central.com/report/moocs-stats-and-trends-2018/

  • Shim, W., & Paik, S. (2014). The effect of high school track choice on students’ postsecondary enrollment and majors in South Korea. Asia Pacific Education Review, 15, 573–583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-014-9344-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Korea. (2020). Employment rate for post-secondary education graduates. Retrieved from http://www.index.go.kr/potal/main/EachDtlPageDetail.do?idx_cd=1551

  • Stich, A. E., & Reeves, T. D. (2017). Massive open online courses and underserved students in the United States. Internet and Higher Education, 32(1), 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.09.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toven-Lindsey, B., Levis-Fitzgerald, M., Barber, P. H., & Hasson, T. (2015). Increasing persistence in undergraduate science majors: A model for institutional support of underrepresented students. CBE Life Sci Education, 14(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.14-05-0082

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, T., & Richardson, J. C. (2015). An exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis of the student online leaning readiness (SOLR) instrument. Online Learning, 19(9), 120–141. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085767.pdf

  • Vallerland, R. J., Pelletier, L., Blais, M. R., & Briere, N. M. (1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veletsianos, G., & Shepherdson, P. (2016). A systematic analysis and synthesis of the empirical MOOC literature published in 2013–2015. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i2.2448

  • Venkataraman, B., & Kanwar, A. (2015). Changing the tune: MOOCs for human development? In C. J. Bonk, M. M. Lee, T. C. Reeves, & T. H. Reynolds (Eds.), MOOCs and Open Education Around the World (pp. 206–217). Routledge.

  • Wang, Y., & Baker, R. (2018). Grit and intention: Why do learners complete MOOCs?. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i3.3393

  • Wildavsky, B. (2017). Developing countries: Moocs in the developing world: Hope or hype? In G. Mihut, P. G. Altbach, & H. de Wit (Eds.), Understanding global higher education (pp. 163–165). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6351-044-8_35

  • Zhang, K., Bonk, C. J., Reeves, T. C., & Reynolds, T. H. (Eds.). (2020). MOOCs and open education in the Global South: Challenges, successes, and opportunities. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429398919

  • Zhenghao, C., Alcorn, B., Christensen, G., Eriksson, N., Koller, D., & Emanuel, E. J. (2015, September 22). Who’s benefiting from MOOCs, and why. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2015/09/whos-benefiting-from-moocs-and-why

  • Zhu, M., Bonk, C. J., & Sari, A. (2018, December). Instructor experiences designing MOOCs in higher education: Pedagogical, resource, and logistical considerations and challenges. Online Learning, 22(4), 203–241. https://olj.onlinelearningconsortium.org/index.php/olj/article/view/1495

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation-An essential dimension of self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning (pp. 1–30). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Download references

Acknowledgement

Not applicable

Funding

The authors declare that we have no funding source for this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Education, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon-si, Korea

    Min Young Doo

  2. Instructional Systems Technology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Curtis J. Bonk

  3. Research Institute for HRD Policy, Korea University, 145 Anam-Ro Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136250, Korea

    Jungwon Kim

Authors
  1. Min Young Doo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Curtis J. Bonk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jungwon Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jungwon Kim.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest

There were no conflicts of interest in this research.

Consent to participate

Verbal informed consent was obtained prior to the survey.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Doo, M.Y., Bonk, C.J. & Kim, J. An investigation of under-represented MOOC populations: motivation, self-regulation and grit among 2-year college students in Korea. J Comput High Educ 33, 419–440 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-021-09270-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-021-09270-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation