Assessing early writing: a six-factor model to inform assessment and teaching

Abstract

Studies of early writing recognize that learning to write is a complex process requiring students to attend to the composition of the text and the transcription of the ideas. The research discussed here examined six dimensions of early writing—text structure, sentence structure, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and handwriting—and how each dimension relates to message construction. Specifically, this research aimed to consider the relationships between the authorial and secretarial aspects of writing, in order to support formative assessment and teaching. The research also considered whether there were underlying clusters of students who were engaging with the various dimensions in differing ways as they learned to craft texts. The analysis of data showed a clear conceptualization of the authorial and secretarial aspects of writing, as reflected in a tool for analysing writing. The three authorial dimensions and three secretarial dimensions of writing were well defined statistically. Three clusters of students were identified as having varying degrees of competence across the six dimensions of writing: a group with consistently low scores; a group with consistently medium scores; and a consistently high-scoring group. Attainment for SES groups was reflected in the writing dimensions, and gender differences were also evident; however, the variance explained by gender and SES was small to moderate. The study has implications for supporting students who are at present struggling with the challenges of early writing. The results suggest that when teachers address the dimensions of the writing process in combination, based on an informed analysis of students’ needs, they can focus their teaching and select instructional approaches to increase the efficacy of their teaching.

Appendix

Mackenzie, Scull & Munsie, Writing Analysis Tool, 2009–2013, © All rights reserved

Rating	Text structure	Sentence structure and grammatical features	Vocabulary	Spelling	Punctuation	Handwriting/legibility
1	No clear message	Random words	Records words of personal significance, such as their own name or those of family members	Random letters/letter-like symbols	No evidence of punctuation	Letter-like forms with some recognizable letters
2	One or more ideas (not related)	Shows an awareness of correct sentence parts including noun/verb agreement. Meaning may be unclear	Use familiar, common words (e.g. like, went) and one-, two- and three-letter high-frequency words (e.g. I, my, to, the, a, see, me)	Semi-phonetic, consonant framework, alongside representation of dominant vowel sounds Correct spelling of some two and three-letter high-frequency words (e.g. the, my, to, can)	Some use of capital letters and/or full stops	Mix of upper- and lower-case letters and/or reversals or distortions (e.g. hnr/a d/bp/v y/i l))
3	Two or three related ideas. May also include other unrelated ideas	Uses simple clauses, with noun, verbs, adverbs, which may be linked by “and”. Meaning clear	Everyday vocabulary, for example, Oxford first 307 word list plus proper nouns (in particular to the child’s cultural context, e.g. Fruit Fly Circus, Sydney Opera House)	Phonetic spelling—plausible attempts with most sounds in words represented Correct spelling of three- and four-letter high-frequency words (e.g. the, like, come, have, went)	Correct use of capital letters and full stops at the start and end of sentences	Mostly correct letter formations yet may contain poor spacing, positioning, or messy corrections
4	Four or more sequenced ideas. Clearly connected	Uses simple and compound sentence/s with appropriate conjunctions (e.g. and, but, then) Use of adverbial phrases to indicate when, where, how, or with whom	Uses a range of vocabulary, including topic specific words (e.g. A story about going to the zoo might include animal names and behaviours)	Use of orthographic patterns or common English letter sequence. If incorrect they are plausible alternative (e.g. er for ir or ur; cort for caught) Use of some digraphs (ck, ay) Correct use of inflections (ed, ing) Correct spelling of common words (e.g. was, here, they, this)	Some use, either correct or incorrect, of any of the following: Proper noun, capitalization, speech marks, question mark, exclamation mark, commas for lists, apostrophe for possession	Letters correctly formed, mostly well spaced and positioned
5	Evidence of structure and features of text type, e.g. recount, narrative, report, letter	Uses a variety of sentence structures: simple, compound and complex Pronoun reference is correct to track a character or object over sentences	Demonstrate a variety of vocabulary choices. Includes descriptive or emotive langrage	Use of some irregular spelling patterns (e.g. light, cough) Application of spelling rules (e.g. hope/hoping, skip/skipping) Correct spelling of more complex common words (e.g. there, their, where, were, why, who)	Uses a range of punctuation correctly	Regularity of letter size, shape, placement, orientation, and spacing
6	Complex text which shows strong evidence of the features of text type, purpose, and audience	Demonstrates variety of sentence structures, sentence length, and uses a range of sentence beginnings Sentence flow with logical sequence throughout the text and show a consistent use of tense	Correct use of unique field or technically specific vocabulary Use of figurative language such as metaphor and/or simile	Correct spelling of most words including multisyllabic and phonetically irregular words Making plausible attempts at unusual words	Demonstrates control over a variety of punctuations to enhance text meaning	Correct, consistent, legible, appearing to be fluent