Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Religious and Spiritual Conflicts: A Psychological Perspective

  • Published:
Pastoral Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The authors present a brief history of research on religious and spiritual struggles and of the development of the typology and measurement of such struggles by means of the Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale (Exline et al. 2014). Following a terminological clarification of the terms “religiousness” and “spirituality,” which are often used interchangeably, an overview of the current state of research in the field of religious and spiritual conflicts is given based on fundamental contributions, especially by one of the main pioneers in this field, the American psychologist Julie Juola Exline. Research so far has most extensively focused on American samples, but scholars have recently begun to explore various other cultural and social backgrounds as it cannot be assumed that results from one society can be readily transferred to others, such as more secular societies. The article concludes with a discussion of the findings and a description of future research needs, especially for the European context where a lack of data is still evident.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abu-Raiya, H., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., & Agbaria, Q. (2015). Prevalence, predictors, and implications of religious/spiritual struggles among Muslims. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 54(4), 631–648.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., & Krause, N. (2016). Religion as problem, religion as solution: Religious buffers of the links between religious/spiritual struggles and well-being/mental health. Quality of Life Research, 25(5), 1265–1274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., Krause, N., & Ironson, G. (2015). Robust links between religious/spiritual struggles, psychological distress, and well-being in a national sample of American adults. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(6), 565–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., Weissberger, A., & Exline, J. J. (2016). An empirical examination of religious/spiritual struggle among Israeli Jews. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 26(1), 61–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bucher, A. (2007). Psychologie der Spiritualität [psychology of spirituality]. Weinheim: BeltzPVU.

    Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J. (2002). Stumbling blocks on the religious road. Psychological Inquiry, 13(3), 182–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (vol. 1): Context, theory, and research (pp. 459–475). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., Grubbs, J. B., & Homolka, S. J. (2015). Seeing god as cruel or distant: Links with divine struggles involving anger, doubt, and fear of God’s disapproval. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 25(1), 29–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., Hall, T. W., Pargament, K. I., & Harriott, V. A. (2017). Predictors of growth from spiritual struggle among Christian undergraduates: Religious coping and perceptions of helpful action by god are both important. Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(5), 501–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., Grubbs, J. B., & Yali, A. M. (2014). The religious and spiritual struggles scale: Development and initial validation. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(3), 208–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., & Rose, E. (2005). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 315–330). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Exline, J. J., & Rose, E. D. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 380–398). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitchett, G., Winter-Pfändler, U., & Pargament, K. I. (2014). Struggle with the divine in Swiss patients visited by chaplains: Prevalence and correlates. Journal of Health Psychology, 19(8), 966–976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1927). Die Zukunft einer Illusion [the future of an illusion]. Leipzig: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grom, B. (2011). Spiritualität—Die Karriere eines Begriffs: Eine religionspsychologische Perspektive [spirituality—The career of a concept: A psychology of religion perspective]. In E. Frick & T. Roser (Eds.), Spiritualität und Medizin: Gemeinsame Sorge für den kranken Menschen [spirituality and medicine: Common care for the sick person] (pp. 12–17). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grubbs, J. B., Wilt, J., Stauner, N., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2016). Self, struggle, and soul: Linking personality, self-concept, and religious/spiritual struggle. Personality and Individual Differences, 101, 144–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S. (2005). Grundlagen der Religionspsychologie: Modelle und Methoden [fundamentals of psychology of religion: Models and methods]. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homolka, S. J. (2017). Validation of religious and spiritual struggles scales for adolescents, PhD dissertation. Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University https://etd.ohiolink.edu/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Junker, D. (2005). Auf dem Weg zur imperialen Hypermacht? Die manichäische Falle ist besetzt: U.S.-Aussenpolitik nach dem 11. September [on the way to imperial hyperpower? The Manichaean trap is occupied: U.S. foreign policy after 9/11]. In M. Brocker (Ed.), God Bless America. Politik und Religion in den USA (pp. 208–223). Darmstadt: Primus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, B., Durham, M., & Houben, F. (2016). Religion, spirituality, and psychological crisis. In H. Streib & R. W. Hood Jr. (Eds.), Semantics and psychology of spirituality: A cross-cultural analysis (pp. 437–456). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, C., Berth, H., & Balck, F. (Eds.). (2011). Gesundheit, Religion, Spiritualität. Konzepte, Befunde, Erklärungsansätze [health, religion, spirituality. Concepts, findings, explanatory approaches]. Weinheim: Juventa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohli Reichenbach, C. (2014). Spiritualität im care-Bereich: Begriffsklärungen zu palliative care, spiritual care und Spiritualität [spirituality in the care area: Definitions of palliative care, spiritual care and spirituality]. In I. Noth & C. K. Reichenbach (Eds.), Palliative und Spiritual Care [Palliative and spiritual care] (pp. 11–23). Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Körtner, U. H. J. (2006). Wiederkehr der Religion? Das Christentum zwischen neuer Spiritualität und Gottvergessenheit [return of religion? Christianity between new spirituality and forgotten god]. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

    Google Scholar 

  • McConnell, K. M., Pargament, K. I., Ellison, C. G., & Flannelly, K. J. (2006). Examining the links between spiritual struggles and symptoms of psychopathology in a national sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1469–1484. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgenthaler, C., & Noth, I. (2011). Eine kulturell sensible Religionspsychologie und klinische Beratungspsychologie—Wunsch oder Wirklichkeit? [a culturally sensitive psychology of religion and clinical counseling psychology—Desire or reality?]. In I. Noth, C. Morgenthaler, & K. J. Greider (Eds.), Pastoral psychology and psychology of religion in dialogue (pp. 136–154). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noth, I. (2010). Freuds bleibende Aktualität: Psychoanalyserezeption in der Pastoral- und Religionspsychologie im deutschen Sprachraum und in den USA [Freud’s permanent relevance: Psychoanalysis reception in pastoral psychology and psychology of religion in the German-speaking world and in the USA]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

  • Paloutzian, R.F. & C. L. Park (2005). Integrative themes in the current science of the psychology of religion. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 3-21). New York: Guilford Press.

  • Paloutzian, R. F., & Park, C. L. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and addressing the sacred. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Exline, J. J., & Jones, J. W. (Eds.). (2013). APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (vol. 1): Context, theory, and research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Murray-Swank, N., Magyar, G. M., & Ano, G. G. (2005). Spiritual struggle: A phenomenon of interest to psychology and religion. In W. R. Miller & H. Delaney (Eds.), Judeo-Christian perspectives on psychology: Human nature, motivation, and change (pp. 245–268). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10859-013.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng-Keller, S. (2010). Einführung in die Theologie der Spiritualität [introduction to the theology of spirituality]. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirutinsky, S., Rosmarin, D. H., Pargament, K. I., & Midlarsky, E. (2011). Does negative religious coping accompany, precede, or follow depression among orthodox Jews? Journal of Affective Disorders, 132, 401–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raines, A. M., Currier, J., McManus, E. S., Walton, J. L., Uddo, M., & Franklin, C. L. (2017). Spiritual struggles and suicide in veterans seeking PTSD treatment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(6), 746–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlar, A., Stauner, N., Pargament, K., Exline, J., Grubbs, J., & Bradley, D. (2018). Spiritual struggles among atheists: Links to psychological distress and well-being. Religions, 9(8), 242 1-21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R., Joseph, J., & Linley, P. A. (2005). Religion, spirituality, and posttraumatic growth: A systematic review. Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, 8, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sölle D. (1990). Gott denken. Stuttgart: Einführung in die Theologie.

  • Stauner, N., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2016). Religious and spiritual struggles as concerns for health and well-being. HORIZONTE-Revista de Estudos de Teologia e Ciências da Religião, 14(41), 48–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stauner, N., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., Wilt, J. A., & Grubbs, J. B. (2018). Stressful life events and religiousness predict struggles about religion and spirituality. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 11(3), 291–296 https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000189.

  • Streib, H., & Hood Jr., R. W. (2016). Understanding “spirituality”—Conceptual considerations. In H. Streib & R. W. Hood Jr. (Eds.), Semantics and psychology of spirituality: A cross-cultural analysis (pp. 3–17). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Utsch, M. (2008). Religionspsychologie. In EZW Berlin, 3, 1-5. http://www.ekd.de/ezw/images/EZW_Utsch_Lit_Relpsy.pdf] 24.01.2008.

  • Utsch, M. (Ed.). (2012). Pathologische Religiosität: Genese, Beispiele, Behandlungsansätze [pathological religiosity: Genesis, examples, treatment approaches]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilt, J. A., Grubbs, J. B., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2016). Personality, religious and spiritual struggles, and well-being. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(4), 341–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilt, J. A., Grubbs, J. B., Pargament, K. I., & Exline, J. J. (2017). Religious and spiritual struggles, past and present: Relations to the big five and well-being. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 27(1), 51–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilt, J. A., Pargament, K. I., Exline, J. J., Barrera, T. L., & Teng, E. J. (2018). Spiritual transformation among veterans in response to a religious/spiritual struggle. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 11(3), 266–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000208.

  • Zarzycka, B. (2019). Parental attachment styles and religious and spiritual struggle: A mediating effect of God image. Journal of Family Issues, 40(5), 575–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zarzycka, B., & Puchalska-Wasyl, M. M. (2019). Can religious and spiritual struggle enhance well-being? Exploring the mediating effects of internal dialogues. Journal of Religion and Health, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-00755-w.

  • Zarzycka, B., & Zietek, P. (2018). Spiritual growth or decline and meaning-making as mediators of anxiety and satisfaction with life during religious struggle. Journal of Religion and Health, 58(4), 1072–1086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Spiritual Care, Psychology of Religion, and Religious Education, Faculty of Theology, Institute of Practical Theology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    Isabelle Noth & Jessica Lampe

Authors
  1. Isabelle Noth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jessica Lampe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Isabelle Noth.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Noth, I., Lampe, J. Religious and Spiritual Conflicts: A Psychological Perspective. Pastoral Psychol 69, 135–147 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-020-00900-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-020-00900-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation