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Mali and the Sahel: Making Peace in Another Rough Neighbourhood

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Abstract

Since the fourth Tuareg rebellion in January 2012, followed by a military coup in March of the same year against the democratically elected government of Mali, the Malian state and the greater Sahel region have hitherto become a political and security challenge of seemingly unmanageable proportions for the international community. Following the classification of the situation by the UN Security Council as a threat to international peace and security, foreign, regional and international missions faced intractable difficulties in overcoming political intransigence, powerful rebel groups, terrorism, organized crime, weak state institutions and a deteriorating humanitarian and human rights situation. Described as an ‘archetypal conflict ecosystem’ by commentators and as one of the most dangerous peacekeeping environments by UN officials, the situation in Mali and the Sahel has little to show in terms of progress after 6 years of foreign intervention of various kinds and therefore remains a still to be solved, typical African peace and security challenge. This contribution explains the root causes of instability and violence in the region, and examines the evolution of foreign, regional and international interventions in the region, the changes in peacekeeping mandates and the relationship between the United Nations and the African Union.

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Notes

  1. Following independence from France in 1960, the first three Tuareg and Arab rebellions by the north against the south occurred in 1963, 1991 and 2006, respectively. On this history see Chauzal and Van Damme (2015), pp. 8–11.

  2. Chauzal and Van Damme (2015), pp. 10 et seq.

  3. The Sahel depicts a belt of states dividing the Sahara desert and the savannahs to the South. It stretches from Mauritania in the west to Eritrea in the east and includes Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and the Sudan.

  4. Zyck and Muggah (2013).

  5. SC resolution 2056 (2012).

  6. SC resolution 2100 (2013), para. 7.

  7. Ibid., para. 16.

  8. Ibid., para. 17.

  9. On the practice of intervention by invitation see, inter alia, De Wet (2015), pp. 979–998; Corten (2012), pp. 249 et seq.

  10. The military response by the French forces stopped the southward offensive by the Tuareg armed groups and helped to restore the territorial integrity of Mali with the assistance of the African-led International Support Mission in Mali (AFISMA). For a detailed account of the French offensive see Shurkin (2014), pp. 5 et seq.

  11. SC resolution 2100 (2013), para. 18.

  12. Higgens et al. (2017), pp. 1035–1036.

  13. See also Sheeran (2017), p. 349.

  14. UN Doc. S/2015/364 (22 May 2015).

  15. Cooke and Sanderson (2016).

  16. UN Doc. S/2013/354 (14 June 2013), para. 5.

  17. Ibid., para. 10.

  18. Ibid., paras. 11, 12.

  19. Chauzal and Van Damme (2015), p. 17.

  20. Chauzal and Van Damme (2015), p. 19.

  21. Lacher (2012), p. 4.

  22. Lacher (2012), pp. 11 et seq.

  23. On the EU’s involvement in providing training to the Malian armed forces see the Agreement between the EU and Mali on the status of the EU mission, OJ 2013, L 14, p. 19.

  24. Lacher (2012), pp. 17, 18.

  25. See, inter alia, SC resolutions 1970 (2011) and 1973 (2011).

  26. See UN Doc. S/2012/42 (18 January 2012), paras. 1–4, 13–16, 18–20, 32–36; UN Doc. S/2014/397 (6 June 2014), paras. 8–10, 13–14.

  27. SC resolution 2071 (2012), preamble.

  28. SC resolution 2085 (2012), preamble; SC resolution 2100 (2013), preamble; SC resolution 2295 (2016), preamble and paras. 42, 45; SC resolution 2359 (2017), preamble; SC resolution 2364 (2017), preamble and para. 43; SC resolution 2391 (2017), preamble. See also UN Doc. S/2017/478 (6 June 2017), paras. 16–17, 42, 66; UN Doc. S/2017/869 (16 October 2017), para. 3.

  29. UN Doc. S/2018/273 (29 March 2018).

  30. Ibid., para. 35.

  31. Ibid., para. 40.

  32. Ibid.

  33. Ibid., para. 54.

  34. On this see Chauzal and Van Damme (2015), pp. 47 et seq.

  35. Larémont (2011), pp. 242–243.

  36. Larémont (2011), pp. 245.

  37. Larémont (2011), pp. 249–254.

  38. Larémont (2011), pp. 247.

  39. ‘Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb’, available at http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/65?highlight=mali (accessed on 20 Feb 2018).

  40. SC resolution 2056 (2012), paras. 19, 24.

  41. See also SC resolution 2071 (2012), para. 3.

  42. Information available at https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/ansar-eddine (accessed on 13 Jul 2018).

  43. UN Doc. A/55/305–S/2000/809 (21 August 2000).

  44. Available at https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.pdf (accessed on 10 Mar 2019).

  45. Available at https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/newhorizon_0.pdf (accessed on 10 Mar 2019).

  46. See https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/where-we-operate (accessed on 10 Mar 2019). See also Bellamy and Williams (2015), p. 17: ‘During the 21st century, the use of peace operations in response to major armed conflicts in Africa has become almost standard practice’; and p. 21: ‘UN-recognized peace operations are largely an African affair, with Sub-Saharan Africa accounting for over two-thirds (69 per cent) of all such missions since 1947’.

  47. Principles and Guidelines, supra n. 44. For a more comprehensive account of the challenges faced by the UN in applying these cardinal principles in complex peacekeeping operations requiring a multi-dimensional approach, see White (2015), pp. 47 et seq.

  48. Principles and Guidelines, supra n. 44. See also A New Horizon for UN Peacekeeping, supra n. 45.

  49. UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), paras. 119 and 130(c).

  50. See also Gray (2018b), pp. 627–629.

  51. See also UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), paras. 53–57.

  52. SC resolution 2085 (2012), para. 9.

  53. SC resolution 2100 (2013), para. 7. See also Lotze (2015), pp. 854–863; Gray (2018a), pp. 404–408.

  54. Available at http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/policy_postconflict_dev_reconstruction_2006.pd, at p. 3 (accessed on 2 Oct 2018).

  55. Available at http://www.peaceau.org/uploads/open-session-of-the-peace-and-security-council-of-the-african-union.pdf (accessed on 2 Oct 2018). See also https://issafrica.org/pscreport/addis-insights/spotlight-on-post-conflict-reconstruction-and-development-in-africa (accessed on 2 Oct 2018).

  56. Available at https://reliefweb.int/report/world/670th-meeting-peace-and-security-council-open-session-dedicated-theme-post-conflict (accessed on 2 Oct 2018). See also Ncube (2017), chapter 8.

  57. UN Doc. S/2014/397 (6 June 2014), paras. 9–12.

  58. SC resolution 2295 (2016), preamble.

  59. Ibid.

  60. Ibid., para. 19(d).

  61. See SC resolution 1270 (1999), para. 14. See also Gray (2018a), pp. 289 et seq.; Sheeran (2017), pp. 347 et seq.

  62. See Sloan (2011), chapters 5 and 6.

  63. SC resolution 2295 (2016), para. 29.

  64. Ibid., paras. 29–31.

  65. SC resolutions 2359 (2017), preamble and 2364 (2017), preamble.

  66. UN Doc. S/2017/478 (6 June 2017), para. 42. See also para. 72.

  67. SC resolution 2391 (2017), preamble.

  68. AU Doc. PSC/PR/Comm.DCLXXIX (13 April 2017). This development originated from the Nouakchott process launched in March 2013 by the countries in the region and consolidated in an implementation plan to address the political and security situation in the region during a first summit of the participating countries that took place in December 2014.

  69. SC resolution 2359 (2017), paras. 1, 5.

  70. See SC resolution 2364 (2017), paras. 37, 42.

  71. UN Doc. S/2017/869 (16 October 2017), para. 26.

  72. Ibid., para. 34.

  73. See Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union (2002), Art. 16.

  74. Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Chad.

  75. Resolution No. 00-01/2017 Relative a la Creation d’une Force Conjointe du G5 Sahel (6 February 2017), available at https://www.g5sahel.org/images/Docs/R%C3%A9solutions_force_conjointe__05_02_20171.pdf (accessed on 23 Nov 2018).

  76. UN Doc. S2017/869 (16 October 2017), paras. 16, 17.

  77. SC resolution 2359 (2017), paras. 1, 2.

  78. Ibid., paras. 5, 6.

  79. Ibid., para. 8.

  80. The closest the Council came to such a reference is the following statement in the preamble to SC resolution 2391 (2017): ‘Underscoring the primary responsibility of the G5 Sahel States to address these threats and challenges, as well as the importance for the international community to support African countries uniting their efforts at regional and subregional level to fight against terrorism and transnational organized crimes […] with a view to restore peace and security…’.

  81. For a comprehensive account of this practice see Gray (2018a), pp. 411 et seq.

  82. Report of the High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations, UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), paras. 118, 123.

  83. UN Doc. S/2018/273 (29 March 2018), para. 2.

  84. Ibid., para. 31.

  85. Ibid., para. 34.

  86. Ibid., paras. 34, 35.

  87. Ibid., para. 35.

  88. Ibid., para. 54.

  89. Ibid., paras. 66–70.

  90. UN Doc. S/2018/541 (6 June 2018).

  91. Ibid., para. 54.

  92. Ibid., para. 55.

  93. Ibid., paras. 56, 57.

  94. Ibid., paras. 59, 60, 63.

  95. Ibid., paras. 66, 68.

  96. Ibid., paras. 65–67.

  97. See also ibid., paras. 70, 72 and 74.

  98. Ibid., para. 80.

  99. Ibid.

  100. Ibid., para. 88.

  101. Ibid.

  102. UN Doc. S/2019/207 (5 March 2019), para. 14.

  103. UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), para. 104. See also paras. 195–205.

  104. Diehl (2015), p. 144.

  105. See Doss (2015), p. 803.

  106. SC resolution 2098 (2013), para. 9.

  107. Ibid., para. 12(b).

  108. Ibid., para. 9.

  109. Lilly (2016), p. 314.

  110. UN Doc. S/2013/119 (27 February 2013), paras. 60–63.

  111. Ibid., para. 76. For MONUSCO’s political and protection of civilians mandate see SC resolution 1925 (2010), para. 12.

  112. SC resolution 2098 (2013), preamble and para. 11.

  113. UN Doc. S/2013/119 (27 February 2013).

  114. UN Doc. S/2017/826 (29 September 2017), paras. 7, 8, 17.

  115. Ibid., paras. 71–75.

  116. UN Doc. S/2018/16 (5 January 2018), paras. 13, 26, 27; UN Doc. S/2018/174 (1 March 2018), paras. 14, 25–26, 27.

  117. SC resolution 2463 (2019), para. 21.

  118. See also Müller (2015), p. 369.

  119. See, inter alia, Lilly (2016); Müller (2015).

  120. Assembly/AU/Dec.35 (XVI), January 2011.

  121. Assembly/AU/Dec.710 (XXXI).

  122. See https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-02-07-au-summit-32-egypt-takes-the-wheel-at-the-au/ (accessed on 19 Mar 2019).

  123. UN Doc. S/2015/3 (5 Jan 2015).

  124. See UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), para. 53.

  125. See also De Wet (2017), pp. 314 et seq.

  126. UN Doc. S/2015/3 (5 January 2015), p. 1.

  127. Ibid., p. 3.

  128. Ibid., p. 5.

  129. Ibid., p. 6.

  130. Ibid.

  131. Ibid.

  132. Ibid.

  133. Ibid., p. 7.

  134. Ibid.

  135. Ibid. See also SC resolution 2167 (2014).

  136. See http://www.peaceau.org/uploads/early-warning-system-1.pdf, para. 30 (accessed on 1 Oct 2018).

  137. See for instance UN Doc. S/PRST/2014/27 (16 December 2014); UN Doc. S/2017/744 (30 August 2017).

  138. SC resolution 2457 (2019), preamble.

  139. Ibid., para. 4.

  140. See also ibid., para. 8.

  141. Available at https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33126-doc-04_the_key_agenda_2063_flagship.pdf (accessed on 19 Mar 2019).

  142. Crocker (1992), p. 465.

  143. Ibid., p. 466.

  144. Comprehensive Review of the Whole Question of Peacekeeping Operations in All their Aspects, UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), para. 23.

  145. UN Doc. A/55/305–S/2000/809 (21 August 2000), paras. 6, 29–31.

  146. UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446 (17 June 2015), para. 62.

  147. Ibid., para. 65.

  148. Ibid., para. 63.

  149. Bedzigui (2018), pp. 3–15.

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    Hennie Strydom

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Strydom, H. Mali and the Sahel: Making Peace in Another Rough Neighbourhood. Neth Int Law Rev 66, 75–99 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-019-00134-6

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