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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 October 2016
This paper uses the response to Cyclone Pam in Vanuatu, 2015, as a case-study to review one country’s legal preparedness to manage a large influx of international humanitarian assistance, and the international humanitarian community’s respect for national laws and institutions. It describes provisions in international disaster response law and the developing international law on the protection of persons in the event of disaster regarding the role of the affected state, and juxtaposes this with what happened in the cyclone response—namely, the introduction by international actors of a range of international humanitarian tools and services that were neither described in national legislation nor rehearsed in national planning processes. It concludes by suggesting that national governments and international humanitarian responders advance their efforts to promote the inter-operability of their disaster management systems, and to develop an improved mutual understanding of each other’s roles and responsibilities under international law.
LLB, LLM (University of Melbourne); Humanitarian Policy Advisor, Save the Children Australia. With thanks to Sarah Williams and Gabrielle Simm at the University of New South Wales for comments on earlier drafts of this paper.
1. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Flash Appeal Emergency Response Plan for Vanuatu, Tropical Cyclone Pam, March–June 2015” (March 2015), online: Humanitarian Response <https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/vanuatu/document/flash-appeal-emergency-response-plan-vanuatu-tropicial-cyclone-pam-march>.
2. International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “World Disasters Report 2014: Focus on Culture and Risk” (2014), online: IFRC <http://www.ifrc.org/world-disasters-report-2014> at 220.
3. Asian Development Bank, “Addressing Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific” (2012), online: ADB <http://www.adb.org/publications/addressing-climate-change-and-migration-asia-and-pacific> at 4, 19.
4. Alliance Development Works, World Risk Reports 2011–14, online: UNU-EHS <http://www.worldriskreport.org/>.
5. HAYWARD-JONES, Jenny, “Vanuatu: Bribery Scandal Might Yet Improve Politics” The Interpreter (23 October 2015)Google Scholar, online: Lowy Institute for International Policy <http://www.lowyinterpreter.org/post/2015/10/23/Vanuatu-Bribery-scandal-might-yet-improve-politics.aspx>.
6. Cluster, Vanuatu Shelter, “Shelter and Settlements Vulnerability Assessment—Final Report: Cyclone Pam Response: Vanuatu” (May 2015)Google Scholar, online: ShelterCluster.org <http://sheltercluster.org/sites/default/files/docs/shelter_cluster_report_shelter_and_settlements_vulnerability_assessment_after_cyclone_pam_may2015.pdf> at 3.
7. Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), “Case Study: Ipota’s Preparedness for and Response to Cyclone Pam” (Draft, May 2015), online: CARE <http://www.carenederland.org/content/uploads/2015/06/DIPECHO-Case-Study-1_Ipota_Cyclone-Pam_FINAL.pdf>.
8. For the adequacy of these structures in responding to small and medium-scale disasters, see Anna GERO et al., “Disaster Response and Climate Change in the Pacific: Final Report” (2015), online: National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility <https://www.nccarf.edu.au/publications/disaster-response-climate-change-pacific> at 5, 35–6; and Ingva ANDA, “Vanuatu Humanitarian Team: Program Evaluation Report” (September 2014).
9. SOLDATESCHI, Giovanna, “International Disaster Response Laws, Rules and Principles (IDRL) in Vanuatu: A Study on Vanuatu’s Legal and Policy Framework for Managing Foreign Disaster Response” (2011)Google Scholar, online: IFRC: <http://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/41170/Vanuatu%20IDRL%20Report%20(Low%20Res).pdf>. This review was conducted by the IFRC as part of its Disaster Law Programme, which works around the world to promote legal preparedness for disasters. Key activities include assisting national governments in strengthening their domestic legal preparedness for disasters, advising governments on the development of disaster management law, building partnerships at the international and regional level on legal preparedness, disseminating the IDRL Guidelines, and fostering new research. See IFRC, “About the Disaster Law Programme”, online: IFRC <http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-law/about-idrl/>.
10. Government of Vanuatu National Disaster Management Organization, “Tropical Cyclone Pam—Lessons Learned Workshop Report” (2015) at 24 [NDMO Lessons Learned Report].
11. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950); Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978).
12. For discussion on all of these areas of law and relevance to the protection of persons in times of disaster, see Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters: Preliminary Report on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters, by Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, Special Rapporteur, 5 May 2008, UN Doc. A/CN.4/598, online: UN <http://legal.un.org/docs/?path=../ilc/documentation/english/a_cn4_598.pdf&lang=ESX>.
13. Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 6 December 2007 [on the report of the Sixth Committee], 8 January 2008, UN Doc. A/Res/62/66, online: UN <http://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/RES/62/66>.
14. Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters: Text and Titles of the Draft Articles Adopted by the Drafting Committee on First Reading, 5 May–6 June & 7 July–8 August 2014, UN Doc A/CN.4/L.831 (2015) [Draft Articles].
15. International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Recovery Assistance” (30 November 2007), online: IFRC <http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/idrl/idrl-guidelines/> [IDRL Guidelines].
16. Strengthening Emergency Relief, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Prevention in the Aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Disaster, 3 March 2009, GA Res. 63/137, UN Doc. A/RES/63/137 at para. 6; Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations, 5 March 2009, GA Res 63/139, UN Doc. A/RES/63/139 at para. 8; and International Cooperation on Humanitarian Assistance in the Field of Natural Disasters, from Relief to Development, 10 March 2009, GA Res 63/141, UN Doc. A/RES/63/141 at para. 5.
17. International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, “Model Act for the Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance (with commentary)” (March 2013), online: <http://www.ifrc.org/docs/IDRL/MODEL%20ACT%20ENGLISH.pdf> [Model Act].
18. Projected global humanitarian needs in 2016, at US$20.1 billion, are at a record high. Humanitarian funding provided in 2015 was also at a record high, but still insufficient to meet needs, and the funding gap is growing year on year. See UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Global Humanitarian Overview 2016” (2016), online: UNOCHA <http://www.unocha.org/stateofaid/> at 12–13. It was recently projected that based on current trends, by 2030, humanitarian assistance would cost US$50 billion. See High Level Panel on Humanitarian Financing, “Too Important to Fail—Addressing the Humanitarian Financing Gap: Report to the Secretary General” (December 2015), online: UN <http://www.un.org/news/WEB-1521765-E-OCHA-Report-on-Humanitarian-Financing.pdf>.
19. NDMO Lessons Learned Report, supra note 10 at 6.
20. Pacific Humanitarian Team, “Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan: A Guide to Inter-Agency Humanitarian Action in the Pacific” (2013), online: Humanitarian Response <https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/system/files/documents/files/Pacific_EPREP_2013.pdf> at 66 (emphasis added).
21. Interview with member of the NDMO, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
22. Discussion with Sune Gudnitz, UN OCHA, Regional Office for the Pacific (via phone), May 2015.
23. Interview with international NGO staff, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
24. Groupe URD et al., “Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability” (2014), online: CHS Alliance <http://www.corehumanitarianstandard.org/the-standard>.
25. Resolution on the Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations, 19 December 1991, GA Res 46/182, UN Doc. A/Res/46/182 at annex, para. 3.
26. IDRL Guidelines, supra note 15, art. 10(1).
27. Ibid., art. 10(2).
28. Model Act, supra note 17, art. 6.
29. See discussion in BARBER, Rebecca, “Responding to Emergencies in Southeast Asia: Can we do better? A Review of the Humanitarian Response to the 2011 Thailand and Cambodia Floods” (September 2012)Google Scholar, online: AADMER Partnership Group <http://www.aadmerpartnership.org/responding-to-emergencies-in-southeast-asia-can-we-do-better-a-review-of-the-humanitarian-response-to-the-2011-thailand-and-cambodia-floods/> at 4, 18; and Rebecca BARBER, “Localising the Humanitarian Toolkit: Lessons from Recent Philippines Disasters” (August 2013), online: AADMER Partnership Group <http://www.aadmerpartnership.org/localising-the-humanitarian-toolkit-lessons-from-recent-philippines-disasters/> at 1, 4, 16.
30. Government of Vanuatu, National Disaster Management Office, National Disaster Plan: Review of 2009–2010 at s. 9.2 [National Disaster Plan].
31. “Vanuatu President Calls for Help after Cyclone Destruction” BBC News (14 March 2015), online: BBC <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-31887286>.
32. Draft Articles, supra note 14, arts. 13(10), 14(11).
33. Ibid., art. 16(12).
34. Ibid., art. 7(6).
35. Model Act, supra note 17, art. 7(a), (b).
36. Ibid., art. 7(d).
37. Draft Articles, supra note 14, art. 14(11).
38. IDRL Guidelines, supra note 15, art. 14(1).
39. Draft Articles, supra note 14, art. 15(13).
40. IDRL Guidelines, supra note 15, art. 14.
41. Model Act, supra note 17, art. 22, and commentary at 87.
42. Government of Vanuatu, National Disaster Management Office, National Cyclone Support Plan: Review 2013–2014 at 19 [Cyclone Support Plan].
43. Ibid., at 22.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. National Disaster Plan, supra note 30, s. 9.2.
47. Cyclone Support Plan, supra note 42 at 22.
48. NDMO Lessons Learned Report, supra note 10 at 31.
49. JOHNSTON, Kirsty, “Cyclone Pam: Stinging Attack on Aid Agencies” NZ Herald (19 March 2015)Google Scholar, online: NZ Herald <http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=11419743>.
50. Interview with Michel Kalworai, Secretary-General, Shefa Provincial Government Council, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
51. Interview with Tim Nelson, Save the Children, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
52. Interview with Tom Skirrow, Save the Children, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
53. Soldateschi, supra note 9 at 12.
54. Draft Articles, supra note 14, art. 13(10).
55. Ibid., arts. 14(11), 15(13).
56. Ibid., art 14(11).
57. See also SIVAKUMARAN, Sandesh, “Arbitrary Withholding of Consent to Humanitarian Assistance in Situations of Disaster” (2015) 64 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 501 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and BARBER, Rebecca, “The Responsibility to Protect the Survivors of Natural Disaster: Cyclone Nargis, A Case Study” (2009) 14 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
58. Draft Articles, supra note 14, art. 12.
59. IDRL Guidelines, supra note 15, art. 3(3).
60. Model Act, supra note 17, art. 12(a).
61. Ibid., art. 12(b).
62. Ibid., art. 12(e).
63. Ibid., art. 13(c).
64. Ibid., art. 15(b).
65. Government of Vanuatu, National Disaster Act No.31 of 2000 (2000), s. 5 [National Disaster Act].
66. Ibid., s. 6.
67. Ibid., part 3, s. 8.
68. Government of Vanuatu, National Disaster Management Office, “Standard Operating Procedures” (January 2013), art. 9.2.10 [NDMO Standard Operating Procedures].
69. Cyclone Support Plan, supra note 42 at 8.
70. See Inter-Agency Standing Committee, “Reference Module for Cluster Coordination at Country Level” (July 2014), online: Humanitarian Response <https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/system/files/documents/files/iasc-coordination-reference%20module-en_0.pdf>.
71. Cyclone Support Plan, supra note 42 at 8.
72. Interviews with national and international actors engaged in the response to Cyclone Pam, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
73. NDMO Lessons Learned Report, supra note 10 at 32.
74. Examples of the former include: The Sphere Project, “The Sphere Project: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response” (2011), online: The Sphere Project <http://www.sphereproject.org/>; and Groupe URD et al., supra note 24. Examples of the latter include countless checklists, toolkits, and manuals spanning all sectors of humanitarian response, such as the Minimum Standards for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action. See Child Protection Working Group, “Minimum Standards—Child Protection AoR”, online: CPWG <http://cpwg.net/minimum-standards/>.
75. Pacific Humanitarian Team, supra note 20 at 2.
76. Ibid., at 10. These are the actions required for a Level-3 response. A Level-3 emergency is defined as a major sudden-onset humanitarian crisis triggered by a national disaster or conflict which requires system-wide mobilization or “L3 activation” to ensure a more effective response to humanitarian need.
77. Model Act, supra note 17, art. 12(b).
78. Interviews with national and international actors engaged in the response to Cyclone Pam, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
79. Pacific Humanitarian Team, supra note 20 at 11.
80. Interviews with national government and non-government responders involved in the response to Cyclone Pam, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
81. Interview with Jacob Kool, World Health Organization, Port Vila, Vanuatu, April 2015.
82. Pacific Humanitarian Team, supra note 20 at 14.
83. NDMO Lessons Learned Report, supra note 10 at 32.
84. Discussion with Sune Gudnitz, UN OCHA, Regional Office for the Pacific (via phone), May 2015.
85. Interview with Elizabeth Christy, UN Food and Agricultural Organization, Auckland (via skype), April 2015.
86. NDMO Lessons Learned Report, supra note 10 at 6.
87. One Humanity: Shared Responsibility, Report of the Secretary-General for the World Humanitarian Summit, UN Doc. A/70/709 (2016), at 31.
88. Government of Vanuatu, “Tropical Cyclone Pam Humanitarian Action Plan” (1 May 2015), online: ReliefWeb <http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/vanuatu_tc_pam_hap.pdf> at 6.
89. See for example, Barber, “Localising the Humanitarian Toolkit”, supra note 29; Steven ZYCK and Hanna KREBS, “Localising Humanitarianism: Improving Effectiveness through Inclusive Action” (July 2015), online: Overseas Development Institute <http://www.odi.org/publications/9695-local-humanitarian-localization-red-cross-aid>; International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “World Disasters Report 2015: Focus on Local Actors, the Key to Humanitarian Effectiveness” (2015), online: IFRC <http://ifrc-media.org/interactive/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/1293600-World-Disasters-Report-2015_en.pdf>; and Charter for Change, “Charter for Change—Localization of Humanitarian Aid”, online: Charter for Change <http://charter4change.org/>.
90. World Humanitarian Summit Secretariat, “Restoring Humanity: Synthesis of the Consultation Process for the World Humanitarian Summit” (5 October 2015), online: World Humanitarian Summit <https://www.worldhumanitariansummit.org/whs_Consultation_Reports> at 90.
91. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, supra note 18 at 12–13.
