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Parenthood, Maturation, and Desistance: Examining Parenthood Transition Effects on Maturation Domains and Subsequent Reoffending

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Abstract

Purpose

We employ Rocque's (Criminology & Criminal Justice, 15(3), 340–360, 2015) integrated maturation theory of desistance to examine the impact of parenthood on four maturation domains and on desistance from self-reported offending among a sample of serious adolescent offenders.

Methods

Using a subsample from the Pathways to Desistance panel (N = 1221), we employ Bayesian mixed-effect growth curve models to examine whether transition to parenthood shocks growth to maturation domains, whether growth in maturation domains is associated with self-reported offending, and whether any effects differ between males and females.

Results

The analysis suggests that, particularly for males, parenthood does have some effect on the growth of certain maturation domains, and that maturation domains are variably associated with offending for both males and females, but that parenthood does not affect offending through its impact on maturation.

Conclusions

The relationship between parenthood and desistance from offending remains unclear. Parenthood appears to affect maturation, and maturation appears to affect offending, but the connection between these concepts needs further research. Concerning integrated maturation theory and similar perspectives, future research should reassess age-graded, “role transition” theories of desistance considering evolving meanings of adulthood.

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Notes

  1. It is worthwhile to note that although most of the domains were measured as time-varying over the entirety of Rocque et al.’s [71] study, limited measures for neurological maturation and civic maturation were available.

  2. For the initial 6-month waves, this aggregation process involves applying appropriate functions to sets of variables given their level of measurement. Ratio (count) variables are summed, interval scores are averaged, and binary indicators (e.g., was the respondent employed?) were treated as logicals (e.g., employed in the first 6 months but not second still translates to being employed at some point in the previous year). This aggregation avoids conflating changes in maturation or offending trajectories with the differential exposure time created by the switch from 6- to 12-month follow-up periods in the pathways data.

  3. Attrition in the Pathways data is relatively infrequent, where 73% of this sample (n = 895) were observed for all waves. A logit regression predicting attrition based on baseline wave data and all measures from the offending models suggested that males and with more extensive criminal histories were more likely to drop out of the study, and otherwise, those who dropped out were similar to those who remained for all waves. Because subsequent analyses control or partition on these covariates, we will proceed assuming that attrition is missing at random (MAR), conditional on the predictors included in the analysis [47].

  4. Using the Cambridge Study in Delinquency Development, Farrington and colleagues [26] observed that criminal career durations were longer in self-reports and age of onset was 8 years earlier on average. However, discrepancies were largest when the sample became considerably older. As such, by focusing on self-report data with young adults (albeit over a relatively long follow-up), our measures should be more sensitive to continued offending. This is compared to sole reliance on official records, which would have a higher likelihood of suggesting that an individual had reduced their variety of offending when they had not.

  5. Although this approach obfuscates changes concerning the birth of subsequent children, it is the most consistent with the research questions guiding this inquiry, considering whether parenthood acts as an exogenous shock to maturation and offending growth trajectories. Whether these trajectories change again following a subsequent birth or loss of a child is a separate, but worthy, research question requiring additional analyses which go beyond the scope of the current inquiry. In the current research, 24% of subjects had more than one child, and 7% lost a child during the observation period. The results reported here were consistent with sensitivity checks which focused only on subjects with a maximum of a single child and never lost a child during the study period.

  6. It is worth noting that the metrics on certain items in the indices were dichotomized or rescaled to prevent certain items from dominating the variation in the domain. For instance, the items on romantic relationship quality, tolerance for deviance, and monitoring of deviant behavior in the adult social role domain were dichotomized to prevent the index from becoming one that overly weights romantic relationships.

  7. For clarification to readers, the likelihood functions used by these methods are identical to those employed by maximum likelihood methods using the same distributional families (i.e., Guassian for the maturation models, binomial for the self-reported offending models). The primary difference concerns inference on the estimated parameters. Rather than assuming that there is an unknown but fixed parameter for a regression coefficient, this method assigns a distribution to the parameter to be estimated, with the results representing a distribution of probable parameters that could reproduce the data (see [53, 97]). It is worth noting that the conclusions presented here are consistent with those produced by maximum likelihood, although those models ran into convergence difficulties.

  8. All coefficients presented in Tables 4 and 5 are posterior means, standard errors are the standard deviations of the posterior distributions, and significance is assessed using 0.90 and 0.95 percentile intervals. All models were run using 13,000 iterations, a burn-in of 3000 iterations, and a thinning factor of 10 across 4 Markov Chains, producing 4000 analysis samples. Markov chain mixing and convergence were confirmed using Gelman-Rubin diagnostics [32]. All models are fit using an unstructured variance-covariance matrix for the random effects. Covariances between random effects are not reported.

  9. Models were assessed for the presence of multicollinearity. Outside of the time trend variables, which produce considerable multicollinearity due to their being functions of one another, no covariates exceeded a \( \sqrt{VIF} \)of 2.

  10. Concerned readers should note that alternate specifications for the maturation models included within- and between-person effects for employment and cohabitation (i.e., as a substitute for marriage, which is not available in the Pathways data). The effects and significance for time trends and after-parent change were identical to the models presented here, but due to these factors being a component of adult social role maturation, these covariates produced extremely large and unstable effects for that domain. Because controlling for these variables produced no substantive change in the other maturation domains, we present models that do not include these covariates.

  11. We report total maturation as an outcome of the maturation growth curve models but do not include it as a covariate in the offending models, due to it being a function of the other maturation domains. A separate analysis using only total maturation as a domain in the offending model suggested this score was unrelated to offending.

  12. We explored this possibility with the Pathways data via a sensitivity analysis which further stratified the analysis by age groups, differentiating subjects who were relatively younger at baseline (age 14–15) and those relatively older (age 16–18). This analysis, displayed in the Appendix, did not observe any systematic differences in maturation or offending across these age categories. However, because the sample is relatively young, all of those who are experiencing parenthood transitions are doing so within a restricted timeframe which may represent precocious maturity. Indeed, at the final wave, the oldest subjects were 26 years old, which is the average age at first birth for the US population as a whole [16]. Moreover, stratifying the analysis further reduces statistical power to detect significant differences, particularly among the females in this sample.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Michael Rocque for his thoughtful review of an earlier draft of this manuscript. Additionally, we would like to thank Beth Huebner, Jarrod Hadfield, Joseph Schwartz, Jillian Turanovic, and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, Suffolk University, Boston, MA, 02108, USA

    Rebecca Stone

  2. School of Criminology and Justice Studies, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Health and Social Sciences Building, Rm. 495, 113 Wilder Street, Lowell, MA, 01824, USA

    Jason Rydberg

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Correspondence to Rebecca Stone.

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Stone, R., Rydberg, J. Parenthood, Maturation, and Desistance: Examining Parenthood Transition Effects on Maturation Domains and Subsequent Reoffending. J Dev Life Course Criminology 5, 387–414 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-019-00123-6

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