Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ambient Discrimination, Victimization, and Suicidality in a Non-Probability U.S. Sample of LGBTQ Adults

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ) are at a higher risk for suicidality compared to the general population. A growing body of research has investigated this risk, particularly with attention to systemic factors such as discrimination and harassment. Unfortunately, research has only examined the impact of direct discrimination on suicidality and has neglected to examine how ambient discrimination (i.e., witnessing or being made aware of discriminatory behaviors directed at someone other than yourself in your group) relates to suicidality. Additionally, although some links exist between discrimination and suicidality, the mechanisms by which these are related are understudied. This study aimed to address these gaps by exploring the effect of ambient discrimination on suicidal ideation and examining psychological pain as a mediator in this relationship. Data were collected from a sample of 200 LGBTQ-identified individuals (M age = 35 years; 53.5% female; 86% White). Results of independent t tests and a one-way multivariate ANOVA revealed greater vulnerability for ambient/direct discrimination and psychache among individuals identifying as transgender, queer, and other. Regression and mediation analyses revealed that while both ambient and direct discrimination predicted suicidal ideation, only direct discrimination accounted for unique variance in the outcome; however, both ambient and direct discrimination contributed unique variance to psychological pain, which fully mediated their relationships to suicidal ideation. Results of this study may begin to provide insight into the pathways of risk and points of intervention for suicidality in the LGBTQ community.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arnold, H. J., & Feldman, D. C. (1981). Social desirability response bias in self-report choice situations. Academy of Management Journal, 24(2), 377–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baams, L., Grossman, A. H., & Russell, S. T. (2015). Minority stress and mechanisms of risk for depression and suicidal ideation among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Developmental Psychology, 51(5), 688–696.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Badgett, M. V., Lau, H., Sears, B., & Ho, D. (2007). Bias in the workplace: Consistent evidence of sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/bias-in-the-workplace/

  • Balsam, K. F., Beadnell, B., & Molina, Y. (2013). The Daily Heterosexist Experiences Questionnaire: Measuring minority stress among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 46(1), 3–25.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baquet, C. R., Commiskey, P., Mullins, C. D., & Mishra, S. I. (2006). Recruitment and participation in clinical trials: Socio-demographic, rural/urban, and health care access predictors. Cancer Detection and Prevention, 30(1), 24–33.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, G. R., Scheim, A. I., Pyne, J., Travers, R., & Hammond, R. (2015). Intervenable factors associated with suicide risk in transgender persons: A respondent driven sampling study in Ontario, Canada. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 525. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1867-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97(10), 90–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, F. W., & Bunce, D. (2000). Mediators of change in emotion-focused and problem-focused worksite stress management interventions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 156–163.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bränström, R., van der Star, A., & Pachankis, J. E. (2020). Untethered lives: Barriers to societal integration as predictors of the sexual orientation disparity in suicidality. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(1), 89–99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campos, R. C., Gomes, M., Holden, R. R., Piteira, M., & Rainha, A. (2017). Does psychache mediate the relationship between general distress and suicide ideation? Death Studies, 41(4), 241–245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2002). The paradox of self-stigma and mental illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 35–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Hershberger, S. L., & Pilkington, N. W. (2001). Suicidality patterns and sexual orientation-related factors among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 31(3), 250–264.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Graaf, R., Sandfort, T. G., & ten Have, M. (2006). Suicidality and sexual orientation: Differences between men and women in a general population-based sample from the Netherlands. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(3), 253–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • dickey, l. m., & Budge, S. L. (2020). Suicide and the transgender experience: A public health crisis. American Psychologist, 75(3), 380–390.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dirkes, J., Hughes, T., Ramirez-Valles, J., Johnson, T., & Bostwick, W. (2016). Sexual identity development: Relationship with lifetime suicidal ideation in sexual minority women. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 25(23–24), 3545–3556.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327–1343.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, N. I., & Lieberman, M. D. (2004). Why rejection hurts: A common neural alarm system for physical and social pain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(7), 294–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290–292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faulkner, A. H., & Cranston, K. (1998). Correlates of same-sex sexual behavior in a random sample of Massachusetts high school students. American Jjournal of Public Health, 88(2), 262–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feinstein, B. A. (2019). The rejection sensitivity model as a frame-work for understanding sexual minority mental health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 2247–2258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1428-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feinstein, B. A. (2020). Response to commentaries: Toward a unifying framework for understanding and improving sexual and gender minority mental health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2295–2300.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feinstein, B. A., Goldfried, M. R., & Davila, J. (2012). The relationship between experiences of discrimination and mental health among lesbians and gay men: An examination of internalized homonegativity and rejection sensitivity as potential mechanisms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(5), 917927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldner, M. T., Zvolensky, M. J., Eifert, G. H., & Spira, A. P. (2003). Emotional avoidance: An experimental test of individual differences and response suppression using biological challenge. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 403–411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(2), 424–430.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, S. D., Griffin, R. H., & Pachankis, J. E. (2020). Minority stress, social integration, and the mental health needs of LGBTQ asylum seekers in North America. Social Science and Medicine, 246, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, R. J., Littell, R. C., & Creighton, L. (2003). Regression using JMP. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glomb, T. M., Richman, W. L., Hulin, C. L., Drasgow, F., Schneider, K. T., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Ambient sexual harassment: An integrated model of antecedents and consequences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 71(3), 309–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldblum, R., Testa, R. J., Pflum, S., Hendricks, M. L., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). The relationship between gender-based victimization and suicide attempts in transgender people. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 468–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez, P. M., Osman, A., Barrios, F. X., & Kopper, B. A. (2001). Development and initial validation of the self-harm behavior questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77(3), 475–490.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haas, A. P., Eliason, M., Mays, V. M., Mathy, R. M., Cochran, S. D., D’Augelli, A. R., … Clayton, P. J. (2010). Suicide and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations: Review and recommendations. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(1), 10–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M. (2013). Sexuality and suicidality: Matched-pairs analyses reveal unique characteristics in non-heterosexual suicidal behaviors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(5), 729–737.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma ‘‘get under the skin’’? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2016). Stigma and minority stress as social determinants of health among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: Research evidence and clinical implications. Pediatric Clinics, 63(6), 985–997.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holden, R. R., Mehta, K., Cunningham, E. J., & McLeod, L. D. (2001). Development and preliminary validation of a scale of psychache. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33(4), 224–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hottes, T. S., Bogaert, L., Rhodes, A. E., Brennan, D. J., & Gesink, D. (2016). Lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts among sexual minority adults by study sampling strategies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 106(5), e1–e12.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hughto, J. M. W., Pachankis, J. E., Willie, T. C., & Reisner, S. L. (2017). Victimization and depressive symptomology in transgender adults: The mediating role of avoidant coping. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(1), 41–51.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hughto, J. M. W., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science and Medicine, 147, 222–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, J. A., Coleman, J. D., Fisher, C. M., & Marasco, V. M. (2014). Correlates of suicide ideation among LGBT Nebraskans. Journal of Homosexuality, 61(8), 1172–1191.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jankoski, J. A. (2010). Is vicarious trauma the culprit? A study of child welfare professionals. Child Welfare, 89(6), 105–120.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, M. L., Asnis, G. M., Sanderson, W. C., Keswani, L., de Lecuona, J. M., & Joseph, S. (1994). Suicide assessment: Clinical interview vs. self-report. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50(2), 294–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz-Wise, S. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2012). Victimization experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 142–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, T., & Hollbach, S. (2005). Group-based emotions as determinants of ingroup identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(6), 677–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, E. M., & Beaver, J. K. (2013). A meaningful life is worth living: Meaning in life as a suicide resiliency factor. Psychiatry Research, 210(3), 934–939.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Springer, C. A. (2001). Aversive behaviors in interpersonal relationships. In R. Kowalski (Ed.), Behaving badly (pp. 151–175). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. S., Kochman, A., & Sikkema, K. J. (2002). Internalized stigma among people living with HIV–AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 6(4), 309–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, H., Xie, W., Luo, X., Fu, R., Shi, C., Ying, X., … Wang, X. (2014). Clarifying the role of psychological pain in the risks of suicidal ideation and suicidal acts among patients with major depressive episodes. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 44(1), 78–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2), 202–223.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manassis, K., Tannock, R., & Monga, S. (2009). Anxious by maternal-versus self-report: Are they the same children? Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18(2), 103–109.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91(11), 1869–1876.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McBee-Strayer, S. M., & Rogers, J. R. (2002). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual suicidal behavior: Testing a constructivist model. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(3), 272–283.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, J. S., Purcell, D., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2001). The relationship between sexual orientation and risk for suicide: Research findings and future directions for research and prevention. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 31(Suppl.), 84–105.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mee, S., Bunney, B. G., Reist, C., Potkin, S. G., & Bunney, W. E. (2006). Psychological pain: A review of evidence. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(8), 680–690.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mereish, E. H., O’Cleirigh, C., & Bradford, J. B. (2014). Interrelationships between LGBT-based victimization, suicide, and substance use problems in a diverse sample of sexual and gender minorities. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 19(1), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L., Rivera, D. P., & Corpus, J. H. (2010). Sexual orientation and transgender microaggressions. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 217–240). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K. E., Davidoff, K., & Shriken, J. (2014). The adverse impact of racial microaggressions on college-students self-esteem. Journal of College and Student Development, 55(5), 461–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Najmi, S., Wegner, D. M., & Nock, M. K. (2007). Thought suppression and self-injurious thoughts and behaviors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(8), 1957–1965.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., Borges, G., Bromet, E. J., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Beautrais, A., … De Graaf, R. (2008). Cross-national prevalence and risk factors for suicidal ideation, plans and attempts. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(2), 98–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara, R. B., & Kotze, D. J. (2010). Do not log-transform count data. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 1(2), 118–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pachankis, J. E., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2015). The mental health of sexual minority adults in and out of the closet: A population-based study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(5), 890–901.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, J. P., Cantania, J., Pollack, L., Moskowitz, J., Canchola, J., Mills, T., et al. (2002). Suicide attempts among gay and bisexual men: Lifetime prevalence and antecedents. American Journal of Public Health, 92(8), 1338–1345.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2005). Suicidality and associated risk factors among lesbian, gay, and bisexual compared to heterosexual Austrian adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 35(6), 661–670.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2009). Childhood gender nonconformity and harassment as predictors of suicidality among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual Austrians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(3), 400–410.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., Kralovec, K., & Fartacek, R. (2010). The relation between sexual orientation and suicide attempts in Austria. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(6), 1403–1414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., Sellmeier, M., Fartacek, C., Pichler, E. M., Fartacek, R., & Kralovec, K. (2014). Explaining the suicide risk of sexual minority individuals by contrasting the minority stress model with suicide models. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1559–1570.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., & Tremblay, P. (2015). Mental health of sexual minorities: A systematic review. International Review of Psychiatry, 27(5), 367–385.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., Greytak, E. A., Parsons, J. T., & Ybarra, M. L. (2015). Gender minority social stress in adolescence: Disparities in adolescent bullying and substance use by gender identity. Journal of Sex Research, 52(3), 243–256.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., Hughto, J. M. W., Gamarel, K. E., Keuroghlian, A. S., Mizock, L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2016). Discriminatory experiences associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among transgender adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(5), 509–519.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, I., & Cowie, H. (2006). Bullying and homophobia in UK schools: A perspective on factors affecting resilience and recovery. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education, 3(4), 11–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, I., Poteat, V. P., Noret, N., & Ashurst, N. (2009). Observing bullying at school: The mental health implications of witness status. School Psychology Quarterly, 24(4), 211–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rood, B. A., Puckett, J. A., Pantalone, D. W., & Bradford, J. B. (2015). Predictors of suicidal ideation in a statewide sample of transgender individuals. LGBT Health, 2(3), 270–275.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, G. M., & Richards, J. A. (2003). Stressor and resilience factors for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals confronting antigay politics. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(3–4), 313–328.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Ryan, C., Toomey, R. B., Diaz, R. M., & Sanchez, J. (2011). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescent school victimization: Implications for young adult health and adjustment. Journal of School Health, 81(5), 223–230.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., & Diaz, R. M. (2014). Being out at school: The implications for school victimization and young adult adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(6), 635–643.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salentine, C. M., Hilt, L. M., Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Ehlinger, P. P. (2020). The link between discrimination and worst point suicidal ideation among sexual and gender minority adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 50(1), 19–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (1994). Verbal and physical abuse as stressors in the lives of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual youths: Associations with school problems, running away, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 261–269.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneidman, E. S. (1993). Suicide as psychache: A clinical approach to self-destructive behavior. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneidman, E. S. (1996). The suicidal mind. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shneidman, E. S. (1998). Further reflections on suicide and psychache. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 28(3), 245–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. R. (1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M. Mackie & D. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition and stereotyping (pp. 297–315). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, D. M., Luo, F., Ouyang, L., Lippy, C., Hertz, M. F., & Crosby, A. E. (2014). Sexual orientation and suicide ideation, plans, attempts, and medically serious attempts: Evidence from local youth risk behavior surveys, 2001–2009. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), 262–271.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Pearson, N. B., & Johnston, K. E. (2007). Daily encounters with heterosexism: A week in the life of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 53(4), 31–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Testa, R. J., Michaels, M. S., Bliss, W., Rogers, M. L., Balsam, K. F., & Joiner, T. (2017). Suicidal ideation in transgender people: Gender minority stress and interpersonal theory factors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(1), 125–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tobler, A. L., Maldonado-Molina, M. M., Stara, S. A., O’Mara, R. J., Livingston, M. D., & Komro, K. A. (2013). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, problem behaviors, and mental health among minority urban youth. Ethnicity & Health, 18(4), 337–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verrocchio, M. C., Carrozzino, D., Marchetti, D., Andreasson, K., Fulcheri, M., & Bech, P. (2016). Mental pain and suicide: A systematic review of the literature. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, 108. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Virupaksha, H. G., Muralidhar, D., & Ramakrishna, J. (2016). Suicide and suicidal behavior among transgender persons. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 38(6), 505–509.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, C. G., Ribeiro, J. D., & Franklin, J. C. (2017). Predicting risk of suicide attempts over time through machine learning. Clinical Psychological Science, 5(3), 457–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, R. R. (1998). How many discoveries have been lost by ignoring modern statistical methods? American Psychologist, 53(3), 300–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Krentzman, A., & Gattis, M. (2012). Alcohol and drug use among sexual minority college students and their heterosexual counterparts: The effects of experiencing and witnessing incivility and hostility on campus. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, 3(1), 11–23.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Paceley, M. S., Kulick, A., & Hong, J. S. (2015). The LGBQ social climate matters: Policies, protests, and placards and psychological well-being among LGBQ emerging adults. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27(1), 116–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, K. B. (2005). Researching Internet-based populations: Advantages and disadvantages of online survey research, online questionnaire authoring software packages, and web survey services. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00259.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL, 33620, USA

    Amanda L. Peterson, Ansley M. Bender, Benjamin Sullivan & Marc S. Karver

Authors
  1. Amanda L. Peterson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ansley M. Bender
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Benjamin Sullivan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marc S. Karver
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Amanda L. Peterson, Ansley M. Bender, Benjamin Sullivan, and Marc Karver. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Amanda L. Peterson, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amanda L. Peterson.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee (University of South Florida, ID: Pro00032677) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Peterson, A.L., Bender, A.M., Sullivan, B. et al. Ambient Discrimination, Victimization, and Suicidality in a Non-Probability U.S. Sample of LGBTQ Adults. Arch Sex Behav 50, 1003–1014 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01888-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01888-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation