Characterization of herbicide use and factors responsible for herbicide resistance in Phalaris minor in wheat in Haryana, India
Introduction
Herbicide resistance in Phalaris minor Retz. (little seed canary grass) in wheat is the major sustainability issue, which puts the rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) in north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) under serious threat. It is an associated weed of RWCS because of high surface moisture, high use of inputs (mainly nitrogenous fertilizers), and a fixed time table of emergence, growth, and development (Yadav and Malik, 2005). Other than the morphological similarity, seed shedding behavior (matures earlier than crop and sheds seeds), nonsynchronous maturity, and germination in multiple flushes make it a cumbersome weed to manage in wheat (Rana and Rana, 2015). With the introduction of short-statured high yielding wheat varieties, which are less competitive than traditional long-statured varieties, management of weeds, especially P. minor became a big issue for farmers in IGP. To tackle it, farmers started using herbicide isoproturon in the 1980s. Due to over-dependence on a single herbicide for a more extended period coupled with mono-cropping, it evolved resistance against isoproturon in 1992-93, the first instance of herbicide resistance in India (Malik and Singh, 1995). By 1993, the resistance affected area reached up to 0.8–1.0 million hectares in north-western India; the highest affected was Haryana (0.56–0.6 m ha), followed by Punjab (0.3 m ha) (Franke, 2002). During the nineties, farmers forced to cut their immature crops as fodders due to field overcrowded by P. minor (1500–2000 plants m−2), as wheat yields could be reduced up to 30% by 150 plants m−2 (Malik and Singh, 1995).
To deal with resistance in P. minor, four alternate herbicides viz. clodinafop, sulfosulfuron, tralkoxydim, and fenoxaprop were brought in recommendation during 1997-98 (Yadav and Malik, 2005). These herbicides also lost efficacy within 10–15 years resulting in farmers doubling the rate of application with repeated spray to get desirable control (Bhullar et al., 2014). Now, it is confirmed and well-established that P. minor evolved multiple herbicide resistance against prevailing herbicides, by three modes of action viz. photosynthesis at the photosystem II site A, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), and acetolactate synthase inhibition (Chhokar et al., 2008; Yadav et al., 2016; Punia et al., 2017). Many field surveys were conducted to know the patterns of spray technique and herbicide use against resistant P. minor, but these were random and inconclusive (Yadav et al., 2006; Punia et al., 2013; Bhullar et al., 2014). Most of the studies conducted so far were oriented to quantify the dose required to eradicate or manage the weed based on lab, pot, or field experiments. But the identification of factors determining the probability of herbicide resistance was not covered systematically. Therefore, the present farmer participatory study was made to elucidate the herbicide use along with factors accountable for multiple herbicide resistance in P. minor in wheat under RWCS.
Section snippets
Study area
A systematic household survey was conducted during the Rabi (winter) season of 2017-18 (end of January to February 2018) in five districts (Yamuna Nagar, Kaithal, Karnal, Fatehabad, and Rohtak) of Haryana state (lies between 28°39′35.1″- 30°29′06.8″ N to 75°13′56.6″- 77°36′11.1″ E) of India. Districts were selected purposively, two belonging to intensive RWCS (Karnal and Kaithal) representing typical resistance prone areas in the center, and three districts with lesser intensive RWCS along with
Factors determining the probabilities of herbicide resistance in P. minor
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test value (Chi-Square 7.538, DF = 8 and p = <0.480) is higher and null hypothesis is accepted that the model adequately fits the data (Table 3). Nagelkerke r-square value is also on the higher side, explaining 59.7% variability in the dependent variable (herbicide resistance) contributed by 14 predictor variables. The result of the classification table indicates that the model predicts 82.6 of cases correctly. With the help of the Wald test result (Table 3), estimates can
Conclusions
Cultural practices (like mono-cropping, intensive RWCS, CTD/rotavator sowing, delayed sowing and first irrigation, high use of nitrogenous fertilizers, residue burning, etc.) made P. minor ecologically fit for the IGP region. Initial high frequency of P. minor when exposed against prevailing poor spray techniques (like improper application time, lower spray volume, and improper nozzle), increased the probabilities of resistance development by imposing selection pressure. Further, arbitrary use
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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