Abstract
To gain a comprehensive understanding of adolescent psychological, social, and academic functioning, we employ a variety of positive and negative indicators (indexed by subjective well-being, problem behavior, prosocial behavior, and academic achievement) to explore adolescent adjustment profiles. Furthermore, we investigate the direct and interactive associations of peer attachment and Zhong-Yong thinking (i.e., Doctrine of the Mean) with these emerging adjustment profiles. A sample of 1759 Chinese adolescents (M age = 12.61, SD = 1.50; 51.1% girls) was involved in the present research. Adolescents were uniformly instructed to complete a battery of self-report questionnaires during public school hours, and their academic achievement was measured by self-report grades in mathematics, Chinese, and English. The results of a latent profile analysis showed four adjustment profiles: adaptive, irresponsive, maladaptive, and ambivalent. Moreover, the results of a multiple multinomial analysis showed that adolescents with secure peer attachment and high levels of Zhong-Yong thinking were likely to be the memberships of the adaptive profile. In addition, interaction analysis revealed that in the context of peer attachment security, adolescents with low (instead of high) levels of Zhong-Yong thinking were more likely to be the memberships of the adaptive profile than the ambivalent profile; by contrast, in the context of peer attachment insecurity, adolescents with high levels of Zhong-Yong thinking were more likely to be the memberships of the adaptive profile than the ambivalent profile. The current study expands prior research by presenting a comprehensive and person-centered view of adolescent adjustment patterns. Moreover, the study is pioneering in examining the direct and interactive associations of peer attachment and Zhong-Yong thinking with adolescent adjustment profiles, highlighting the compensatory interplay of these variables on adolescent adaptive functioning.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M., Becker, A., Döpfner, M., Heiervang, E., Roessner, V., Steinhausen, H. C., & Rothenberger, A. (2008). Multicultural assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology with ASEBA and SDQ instruments: Research findings, applications, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 49, 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01867.x.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02202939.
Balluerka, N., Gorostiaga, A., Alonso-Arbiol, I., & Aritzeta, A. (2016). Peer attachment and class emotional intelligence as predictors of adolescents' psychological well-being: A multilevel approach. Journal of Adolescence, 53, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.08.009.
Bond, M. H. (Ed.). (2010). The oxford handbook of Chinese psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. London: Hogarth Press.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss—Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52, 664–678.
Boyce, W., Torsheim, T., Currie, C., & Zambon, A. (2006). The family affluence scale as a measure of national wealth: Validation of an adolescent self-report measure. Social Indicators Research, 78, 473–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-1607-6.
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent-child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 177–203. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990344.
Chang, T. Y., & Yang, C. T. (2014). Individual differences in Zhong-Yong tendency and processing capacity. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1316. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01316.
Chen, J. J. L. (2005). Relation of academic support from parents, teachers, and peers to Hong Kong adolescents' academic achievement: The mediating role of academic engagement. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 131, 77–127. https://doi.org/10.3200/MONO.131.2.77-127.
Chen, X. (2012). Culture, peer interaction, and socioemotional development. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00187.x.
Chen, X., Chang, L., & He, Y. (2003). The peer group as a context: Mediating and moderating effects on relations between academic achievement and social functioning in Chinese children. Child Development, 74, 710–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00564.
Chen, X., & French, D. C. (2008). Children's social competence in cultural context. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 591–616. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093606.
Chiu, C. Y. (2000). Assessment of Zhong-Yong (dialect) thinking: Preliminary findings from a cross-regional study. Hong Kong Journal of Social Sciences, 18, 33–55 (in Chinese).
Chomeya, R. (2010). Quality of psychology test between Likert scale 5 and 6 points. Journal of Social Sciences, 6, 399–403.
Cui, G., & Lan, X. (2020). The associations of parental harsh discipline, Adolescents' gender, and grit profiles with aggressive behavior among Chinese early adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00323.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsem, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.
Duan, W., Fei, Y., & Tang, X. (2020). Latent profiles and grouping effects of resilience on mental health among poor children and adolescents. Child Indicators Research, 13, 635–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-019-09637-3.
Erdley, C. A., Nangle, D. W., Newman, J. E., & Carpenter, E. M. (2001). Children's friendship experiences and psychological adjustment: Theory and research. In D. W. Nangle & C. A. Erdley (Eds.), New directions for child and adolescent development: The role of friendship in psychological adjustment (pp. 5–24). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fass, M. E., & Tubman, J. G. (2002). The influence of parental and peer attachment on college students' academic achievement. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 561–573. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10050.
Feng, L., & Lan, X. (2020). The moderating role of autonomy support profiles in the association between grit and externalizing problem behavior among family-bereaved adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1578. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01578.
Gallucci, M. (2019). GAMLj: General analyses for linear models. [Jamovi module]. Available at: https://gamlj.github.io/.
Gerard, J. M., & Booth, M. Z. (2015). Family and school influences on adolescents' adjustment: The moderating role of youth hopefulness and aspirations for the future. Journal of Adolescence, 44, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.06.003.
Goodman, A., Lamping, D. L., & Ploubidis, G. B. (2010). When to use broader internalizing and externalizing subscales instead of the hypothesised five subscales on the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ): Data from British parents, teachers and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 1179–1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9434-x.
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.
Gorrese, A., & Ruggieri, R. (2012). Peer attachment: A meta-analytic review of gender and age differences and associations with parent attachment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 650–672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9759-6.
Gorrese, A., & Ruggieri, R. (2013). Peer attachment and self-esteem: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 559–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.025.
Greenspoon, P. J., & Saklofske, D. H. (2001). Toward an integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology. Social Indicators Research, 54, 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007219227883.
Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., Brett, B. E., & Cassidy, J. (2017). The multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior in children: Links with attachment theory and research. Social Development, 26, 661–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12242.
He, C., Gu, J., Wu, W., Zhai, X., & Song, J. (2017). Social media use in the career development of graduate students: The mediating role of internship effectiveness and the moderating role of Zhongyong. Higher Education, 74, 1033–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0107-8.
Hou, Y., Xiao, R., Yang, X., Chen, Y., Peng, F., Zhou, S., Zeng, X., & Zhang, X. (2020). Parenting style and emotional distress among Chinese college students: A potential mediating role of the Zhongyong thinking style. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1774. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01774.
IBM Corp. (2012). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 21.0. Armonk: IBM Corp.
Lan, X., & Radin, R. (2020). Direct and interactive effects of peer attachment and grit on mitigating problem behaviors among urban left-behind adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01580-9.
Lan, X., & Sun, Q. (2020). Exploring psychosocial adjustment profiles in Chinese adolescents from divorced families: The interplay of parental attachment and adolescent's gender. Current Psychology, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01097-1.
Lemeshow, S., Sturdivant, R. X., & Hosmer, D. W. (2013). Applied logistic regression (Wiley series in probability and statistics). Wiley.
Lerner, R. M., & Castellino, D. R. (2002). Contemporary developmental theory and adolescence: Developmental systems and applied developmental science. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(02)00495-0.
Leung, J. T. (2020). Too much of a good thing: Perceived Overparenting and wellbeing of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Child Indicators Research, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09720-0.
Leung, J. T., & Shek, D. T. (2020). Parental control and adolescent wellbeing in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Child Indicators Research, 13, 703–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-019-09642-6.
Lin, R. M., Hong, Y. J., Xiao, H. W., & Lian, R. (2020). Honesty-humility and dispositional awe in Confucian culture: The mediating role of Zhong-Yong thinking style. Personality and Individual Differences, 167, 110228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110228.
Little, T. D., Lang, K. M., Wu, W., & Rhemtulla, M. (2016). Missing data. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (3rd ed., pp. 760–796). New York: Wiley.
Liu, Y., Wang, M., Villberg, J., Torsheim, T., Tynjälä, J., Lv, Y., & Kannas, L. (2012). Reliability and validity of family affluence scale (FAS II) among adolescents in Beijing, China. Child Indicators Research, 5, 235–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-011-9131-5.
Lubke, G., & Muthe’n, B. O. (2007). Performance of factor mixture models as a function of model size, criterion measure effects, and class-specific parameters. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 26–47.
Ma, C., Ma, Y., & Lan, X. (2020). The moderating role of social identity and grit in the association between parental control and school adjustment in Chinese middle school students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 677. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00677.
Ma, C., Ma, Y., Wang, Y., & Lan, X. (2019). Empathy and psychosocial adjustment in Tibetan and Han adolescents: A person-centered approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1896. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01896.
McDermott, M. S., & Sharma, R. (2017). Evaluating the impact of method bias in health behaviour research: A meta-analytic examination of studies utilising the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 11, 358–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2017.1339568.
Morin, A. J. S., Meyer, J. P., Creusier, J., & Biétry, F. (2016). Multiple-group analysis of similarity in latent profile solutions. Organizational Research Methods, 19, 231–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115621148.
Morrison, D. F., & Harman, H. H. (1961). Modern factor analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 56, 444. https://doi.org/10.2307/2282293.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus User's guide: Statistical analysis with latent variables (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
Nickerson, A. B., & Nagle, R. J. (2004). The influence of parent and peer attachments on life satisfaction in middle childhood and early adolescence. Social Indicators Research, 66, 35–60. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:soci.0000007496.42095.2c.
Nie, Q., Teng, Z., Bear, G. G., Guo, C., Liu, Y., & Zhang, D. (2019). Hope as mediator between teacher–student relationships and life satisfaction among Chinese adolescents: A between- and within-person effects analysis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20, 2367–2383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0052-6.
Nishikawa, S., Hägglöf, B., & Sundbom, E. (2010). Contributions of attachment and self-concept on internalizing and externalizing problems among Japanese adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 334–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9303-9.
Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14, 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Dyer, W. J., Yorgason, J. B., Fraser, A. M., & Coyne, S. M. (2015). Adolescents' prosocial behavior toward family, friends, and strangers: A person-centered approach. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25, 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12102.
Pan, W., & Sun, L. Y. (2018). A self-regulation model of Zhong Yong thinking and employee adaptive performance. Management and Organization Review, 14, 135–159. https://doi.org/10.1017/mor.2017.33.
Pan, Y., Hu, Y., Zhang, D., Ran, G., Li, B., Liu, C., Liu, G., Luo, S., & Chen, W. (2017). Parental and peer attachment and adolescents' behaviors: The mediating role of psychological suzhi in a longitudinal study. Children and Youth Services Review, 83, 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.10.038.
Pearson, E., & Rao, N. (2003). Socialization goals, parenting practices, and peer competence in Chinese and English preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 173, 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443022000022486.
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741–754.
Perry, D. G., & Pauletti, R. E. (2011). Gender and adolescent development. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00715.x.
Piqueras, J. A., Mateu-Martínez, O., Cejudo, J., & Pérez-González, J. C. (2019). Pathways into psychosocial adjustment in children: Modeling the effects of trait emotional intelligence, social-emotional problems, and gender. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 507. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00507.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.
Richardson, J. T. E. (2011). Eta squared and partial eta squared as measures of effect size in educational research. Educational Research Review, 6, 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.12.001.
Talhelm, T., Zhang, X., Oishi, S., Shimin, C., Duan, D., Lan, X., & Kitayama, S. (2014). Large-scale psychological differences within China explained by rice versus wheat agriculture. Science, 344, 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1246850.
Tambelli, R., Laghi, F., Odorisio, F., & Notari, V. (2012). Attachment relationships and internalizing and externalizing problems among Italian adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 1465–1471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.04.004.
The Jamovi Project (2020). Jamovi (Version 1.6) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from https://www.jamovi.org.
Toh, T. H., Chow, S. J., Ting, T. H., & Sewell, J. (2008). Chinese translation of strengths and difficulties questionnaire requires urgent review before field trials for validity and reliability. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2, 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-2-23.
Van Roy, B., Veenstra, M., & Clench-Aas, J. (2008). Construct validity of the five-factor strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) in pre-, early, and late adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49, 1304–1312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01942.x.
Wang, C. C. D., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2006). Acculturation, attachment, and psychosocial adjustment of Chinese/Taiwanese international students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 422–433. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.4.422.
Wu, C. H., & Lin, Y. C. (2005). Development of a Zhong-Yong thinking style scale. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, 12, 247–299.
Xiang, Y., Li, Q., Dong, X., & Yuan, R. (2020). Envy and emotional intelligence: Evidence from a cross-lagged analysis. PsyCh Journal., 9, 660–667. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.363.
Xu, W., Ding, X., Goh, P. H., & An, Y. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness moderates the relationship between depression and posttraumatic growth in Chinese adolescents following a tornado. Personality and Individual Differences, 127, 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.032.
Yang, X., Zhang, P., Zhao, J., Zhao, J., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Ding, S., & Zhang, X. (2016). Confucian culture still matters: The benefits of Zhongyong thinking (doctrine of the mean) for mental health. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1097–1113. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116658260.
Yang, Y., Li, P., & Kou, Y. (2017). Orientations to happiness and subjective well-being in Chinese adolescents. Child Indicators Research, 10, 881–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-016-9410-2.
Yao, X., Yang, Q., Dong, N., & Wang, L. (2010). Moderating effect of Zhong Yong on the relationship between creativity and innovation behaviour. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2010.01300.x.
Zhao, J., Li, Q., Wang, L., Lin, L., & Zhang, W. (2019). Latent profile analysis of left-behind Adolescents' psychosocial adaptation in rural China. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 1146–1160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00989-1.
Zhou, Q., Tao, A., Chen, S. H., Main, A., Lee, E., Ly, J., et al. (2012). Asset and protective factors for Asian American children’s mental health adjustment. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00251.x.
Zhou, Z., Hu, L., Sun, C., Li, M., Guo, F., & Zhao, Q. (2019). The effect of Zhongyong thinking on remote association thinking: An EEG study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 207. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00207.
Zhou, J., Jiang, S., Zhu, X., Huebner, E. S., & Tian, L. (2020). Profiles and transitions of dual-factor mental health among Chinese early Adolescents: The Predictive Roles of Perceived Psychological Need Satisfaction and Stress in School. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01253-7.
Funding
This study was supported by Research on Northwest Adolescent Education and Development (Northwest Minzu University, Project ID. 1110130135) and the General Project of Education and Teaching Reform Research (Northwest Minzu University, Project No. 2020YBJG-23).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lan, X., Ma, C. & Ma, Y. A Person-Centered Investigation of Adolescent Psychosocial and Academic Adjustment: the Role of Peer Attachment and Zhong-Yong Thinking. Child Ind Res 14, 1479–1500 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09807-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09807-2