Abstract
The established binary oppositions like ‘modern vs. traditional’ or ‘urban vs. rural’ fall short either to comprehend or to (re)generate cultural complexity of the contemporary societies. This problem is usually exposed by the critiques questioning the nature of design in urbanism reducing the domain to formal, functional or stylistic expressions in practice. The alternative track exposing another strategic outlook in the search for ‘enforced’ diversity within the neighbourhood, however, reveals some other social drawbacks in practice. Considering the fact that each community formation creates its own cultural interpretation of the living environment not only at the levels of building and street, but also at that of collective urban fabric, one could argue that the current urban design frameworks fall short to respond to the intrinsic complexity of localities in the city. An alternative approach, in this regard, requires a serious shift in the desired image of multiplicity of urban form. In that view, the paper addresses the concept of ‘heterotopia’ as the theoretical framework of a new design approach for the generation of an open urban fabric accommodating different socio-spatial settings in an integrated manner. To that end, the paper discusses ‘heterotopology’ as an alternative spatial conception of social diversity which embraces the fundamental ability of different communities to produce their own culture and to influence spatial form within the larger urban context. To elaborate the argument, the thought experiment of two design workshops is utilised as a kind of (methodological) ‘research by design’ from which a series of relational codes have been derived to generate heterogonous, but an integrated urban fabric. Eventually, the proposed morphology based on the autonomy of the fragments within an integrated (larger) spatial context is suggested as an alternative to the prevalent socio-spatial models of diversity in planning.
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Notes
In his conceptual framework, Shane (2005) does not assign a negative meaning to the term, ‘enclave’, though in the literature of urbanism, the concept is widely used with a negative connotation implying exclusion and segregation. see Jacobs (1961a, b), Jacobs and Appleyard (1987, p. 115), and Talen and Lee (2018, pp. 17, 148).
M. Foucault first coins the concept of heterotopia within his preface to ‘Les Mots et Les Choses’ in 1966, later translated into English as ‘The Order of Things’ in 1970 (Palladino and Miller 2015, p. 2).
In this view, Genocchio (1995) addresses heterotopia as socially constructed, transient and contestatory sites providing an actual (uncontrollable) basis for ‘resistance’ (pp. 36, 43). Likewise, Lee (1997) argues heterotopia as the ground for spatial discontinuity which provides sites for ‘practical resistance’ (p. 321). From the same perspective, Martin (1999) affirms the conception due to its inclusionary cultural context of localities as in the case of the political resistance of the indigenous people against the totalising policies of state and capital in the Ecuadoran Amazon in Ecuador.
For a comprehensive and updated critical review on the interpretations of heterotopia as of the date of 2016, see Johnson, P. (2016) ‘Interpretations of Heterotopia’ (revised), Heterotopian Studies, http://www.heterotopiastudies.com. Accessed in October 2017.
The extended version of the article was published as a book with the same title in 1978.
As argued by Kömez (2016), in the construction of the theory of ‘Collage City’, the political theory of Karl Popper, the Austrian philosopher, and its idea of ‘piecemeal social engineering’ as oppose to totalitarian and holistic utopian approach had been influential. A similar influence could be followed in Rowe and Koetter’s (1978) original interpretation of history and tradition as well (pp. 109–115).
At that point, it should be noted that Ungers’s conceptual methodology called ‘archipelago’ shares a very similar perspective with that of C. Rowe in the way of suggesting rebuilding the city as a series of fragments (Hertweck and Marot (eds.) 2013). A. Vidler (2014) argues that O.M. Ungers was influenced by the notion of heterotopia, as well.
The critique is against the implicit assumption that physical design of the built environment is the major factor that controls and shapes the patterns of social behaviour. For a concise definition of the term, see Franck (2016).
In the last few decades, mix-income housing development projects exemplified the current search for diversity by urban design. Among them, HOPE VI housing program is one of the most recent attempts to achieve social mix by specifically mixing various housing typologies and tenure types in the States. Although it has been criticised due to several social results, the program is considered a valid alternative to segregated public housing (Talen 2006). Likewise, Regent Park in Toronto, Canada is one of the largest social housing development and revitalisation which is developed as a model to create a socio-economically diverse urban space (Bucerius et al. 2017). From the Netherlands, Kanaleneiland in Utrecht; Transvaal area in The Hague and Overtoomse Veld in Amsterdam are the prominent examples for creating mixed districts through the regulated share of social dwellings with higher-income households (van Kempen and Bolt 2009).
For the philosophical background of such a social perspective in an everlasting search for ‘diversity within unity’, see Good (2006) ‘Beyond "Sushiology": John Dewey on Diversity’, The Pluralist 1(2), pp. 123–132.
Putman’s (2007) research on ethnically diverse local communities suggests that though increased immigration and diversity are both inevitable and desirable over the long run in the advanced societies, they foster social isolation and distrust which essentially harm the local networks of social capital. For the critique of Putman’s (2007) social research with the indication of instability of diverse communities for a proper test on the performance of local diversity, see Grewal (2016) ‘Does Diversity Create Distrust?: Doubts about a Harvard professor’s landmark finding’, Scientific America, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-diversity-create-distrust/. Accessed in October 2018.
see Martin, M. (2007) ‘Political Scientist: Does Diversity Really Work?’, interview with Putnam, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12802663. Accessed in October 2018
Though one could add more ideologies into the suggested framework, the actual number of the mainstream ideologies has been specified both to enable the students to think in alternative worldviews which might not be encountered by themselves before, and to ensure a controllable range of variation during the experiment.
As an example, the Navarinou Park in the Exarchia district in Athens represents a real-life case for the spatial operation called spattering in our framework due to its closeness to the larger urban parks such as Pedion Areos. Known as the anarchist district in Athens, the multi-cultural residents of Exarchia not only come together in this self-built park transformed from a parking lot, but also allow visitors to experience their lifestyle. see Dilouambaka (2018).
As discussed by Suttles (1972), the spatial formation of the community does not reveal a stationary character, but a dynamic one as the defended territoriality expands or contracts boundaries since the individual is always subject to alternative loyalties in the city. That means consolidation of larger group identities (through expansion) does occur parallelly with the emergence of partial identities and roles within the social fabric (p. 37, 184). Likewise, Allport (1954) emphasises the dynamic character of the local communities through changing strength and definition of the ‘in-groups’ in a given culture (p. 35).
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Orhan Sarıaltun (the chief of The Chamber of City Planners in Turkey), Hüseyin Gazi Çankaya (the general manager of The Chamber of City Planners in Turkey); Ayhan Erdoğan for their everlasting support and motivation for the workshops to be realised for three years; Professor D. Grahame Shane for his original theoretical inspiration on the issue; and the students who participated to the workshops by putting an incredible effort for the production of design models. Without them, it would be impossible to discuss the issue on a concrete basis.
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Çalışkan, O., Cihanger Ribeiro, D. & Tümtürk, O. Designing the heterotopia: from social ideology to spatial morphology. Urban Des Int 25, 30–52 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41289-019-00101-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41289-019-00101-w