Abstract
Subversive humor has historically been considered a way of protesting, raising awareness, and seeking change. However, to date, no known empirical research has explored the consequences of exposure to humor that criticizes, confronts, and questions sexism (i.e., subversive humor against sexism or feminist humor). In the present research, we conducted two experiments to analyze the impact of exposure to subversive humor against sexism (vs. neutral humor) on the degree of involvement in collective action for gender equality, taking into account the feminist identity of participants. The results of Study 1 (n = 135) revealed that Spanish women and men with weaker feminist identification showed a higher proclivity to participate in collective action for gender equality after being exposed to subversive humor against sexism (vs. neutral humor). Study 2 (n = 134 Spanish women and men) replicated these results and expanded them to behavioral intentions to participate in this type of collective action. Our findings show the potential implications of using this type of humor for collective action for gender equality. Overall, subversive humor against sexism may function as a supportive tool to combat sexist attitudes, discrimination against women, and gender inequality by raising awareness in people with lower feminist identity to get them more involved in collective action. This approach would facilitate recruiting activists, getting more media coverage, and building a collective identity supporting mobilization against sexism.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, K. R. (2016). Feminist theory in family studies: History, reflection, and critique. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 8(2), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12133.
Baumgartner, J. C., & Lockerbie, B. (2018). Maybe it is more than a joke: Satire, mobilization, and political participation. Social Science Quarterly, 99(3), 1060–1074. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12501.
Becker, J. C., & Wright, S. C. (2011). Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022615.
Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12081.
Berryman-Fink, C., & Verderber, K. S. (1985). Attributions of the term feminist: A factor analytic development of a measuring instrument. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1985.tb00860.x.
Brandt, M. J. (2011). Sexism and gender inequality across 57 societies. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1413–1418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611420445.
Case, C. E., & Lippard, C. D. (2009). Humorous assaults on patriarchal ideology. Sociological Inquiry, 79(2), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2009.00282.x.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Routledge Academic.
Davidson, S. (2016). Gender inequality: Nonbinary transgender people in the workplace. Cogent Social Sciences, 2(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1236511.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160.
Gallivan, J. (1992). Group differences in appreciation of feminist humor. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 5(4), 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1515/humr.1992.5.4.369.
Gill, R. (2017). The affective, cultural and psychic life of postfeminism: A postfeminist sensibility 10 years on. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 20(6), 606–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549417733003.
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., … López, W. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763.
Guizzo, F., Cadinu, M., Galdi, S., Maass, A., & Latrofa, M. (2017). Objecting to objectification: Women’s collective action against sexual objectification on television. Sex Roles, 77(5–6), 352–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0725-8.
Harris, E. C., & Etevez, M. L. (2017). The role of gender and motherhood ideologies in perpetuating workplace inequality. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 7(2), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000099.
Hartz, M. (2007). The role of humour in protest culture. In M. Hart & D. Boss (Eds.), Humour and social protest (pp. 198–204). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Herrero, J., Torres, A., Rodríguez, F. J., & Juarros-Basterretxea, J. (2017). Intimate partner violence against women in the European Union: The influence of male partners’ traditional gender roles and general violence. Psychology of Violence, 7(3), 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000099.
Hideg, I., & Ferris, D. L. (2016). The compassionate sexist? How benevolent sexism promotes and undermines gender equality in the workplace. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 706–727. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2014.11218.
Hodson, G., & MacInnis, C. C. (2016). Derogating humor as a delegitimization strategy in intergroup contexts. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(1), 63–74 https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000052.
Holmes, J., & Marra, M. (2002). Over the edge? Subversive humor between colleagues and friends. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 15(1), 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1515/humr.2002.006.
Kelly, M. (2015). Feminist identity, collective action, and individual resistance among contemporary U.S. feminists. Women's Studies International Forum, 48, 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2014.10.025.
Kutz-Flamenbaum, R. V. (2014). Humor and social movements. Sociology Compass, 8(3), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12138.
Leach, C. W., van Zomeren, M., Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L. W., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 144–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144.
Lee, H., & Kwak, N. (2014). The affect effect of political satire: Sarcastic humor, negative emotions, and political participation. Mass Communication and Society, 17(3), 307–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2014.891133.
Liss, M., Crawford, M., & Popp, D. (2004). Predictors and correlates of collective action. Sex Roles, 50, 771–779. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000029096.90835.3f.
Lombardo, E., & Meier, P. (2009). Power and gender: Policy frames on gender inequality in politics in the Netherlands and Spain. Journal of Women, Politics, & Policy, 30(4), 357–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/15544770903266632.
Lorber, J. (2010). Feminism and their contributions to gender inequality. In J. Lorber (Ed.), Gender inequality: Feminist theories and politics (pp. 1–20). New York: Oxford University Press.
MacCartney, D. (2018). Smart girls: Success, school, and the myth of post-feminism. Contemporary Sociology, 47(1), 99–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094306117744805gg.
Merziger. (2007). “Humor in nazi Germany”: Resistance and propaganda? The popular desire for all-embracing laughter. International Review of Social History, 52, 275–290.
Moy, P., Xenos, M. A., & Hess, V. K. (2005). Communication and citizenship: Mapping the political effects of infotainment. Mass Communication and Society, 8(2), 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0802_3.
Nelson, J. A., Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., Hurt, M. M., Ramsey, L. R., Turner, D. L., & Haines, M. E. (2008). Identity in action: Predictors of feminist self-identification and collective action. Sex Roles, 58, 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9384-0.
Parziale, A. (2008). Gender inequality and discrimination. In R. W. Kolb (Ed.), Encyclopedia of business ethics and society (pp. 978–981). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412956260.n365.
Radke, H. R. M., Hornsey, M. J., & Barlow, F. K. (2016). Barriers to women engaging in collective action to overcome sexism. American Psychologist, 71(9), 863–874. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040345.
Radke, H., Hornsey, M. J., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). Changing versus protecting the status quo: Why men and women engage in different types of action on behalf of women. Sex Roles, 79(9–10), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0884-2.
Redford, L., Howell, J. L., Meijs, M. H. J., & Ratliff, K. A. (2018). Implicit and explicit evaluations of feminist prototypes predict feminist identity and behavior. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430216630193.
Reid, A., & Purcell, N. (2004). Pathways to feminist identification. Sex Roles, 50(11–12), 759–769 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000029095.40767.3c.
Riquelme, A. R., Carretero-Dios, H., Megías, J. L., & Romero-Sánchez, M. (2019). Subversive humor against sexism: Conceptualization and first evidence on its empirical nature. Current Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00331-9, 1, 14.
Romero-Sánchez, M., Durán, M., Carretero-Dios, H., Megías, J. L., & Moya, M. (2010). Exposure to sexist humor and rape proclivity: The moderator effect of aversiveness ratings. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 2339–2350. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509354884.
Romero-Sánchez, M., Carretero-Dios, H., Megías, J. L., Moya, M., & Ford, T. E. (2017). Sexist humor and rape proclivity: The moderating role of joke teller gender and severity of sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 23(8), 951–972. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216654017.
Saucier, D. A., Strain, M. L., Miller, S. S., O’Dea, C. J., & Till, D. F. (2018). “What do you call a Black guy who flies a plane?”: The effects and understanding of disparagement and confrontational racial humor. International Journal of Humor, 31(1), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2017-0107.
Shifman, L., & Lemish, D. (2011). “Mars and Venus” in virtual space: Post-feminist humor and the internet. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 28(3), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2010.522589.
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632.
Sorensen, M. J. (2008). Humor as a serious strategy of nonviolent resistance to oppression. Peace & Change, 33(2), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0130.2008.00488.x.
Stillion, J. M., & White, H. (1987). Feminist humor: Who appreciates it and why? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(2), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00785.x.
Strain, M. L., Martens, A. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2016). “Rape is the new black”: Humor’s potential for reinforcing and subverting rape culture. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(1), 86–95.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310397509.
Tejerina, B., & Perugorría, I. (2017). Crisis and social mobilization in contemporary Spain: The 15M movement. New York: Routledge.
Tuene, S. (2007). Humor a guerrilla tactic: The west German student movement’s mockery of the establishment. International Review of Social History, 52(15), 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002085900700315X.
Vachhani, S. J., & Pullen, A. (2019). Ethics, politics and feminist organizing: Writing feminist infrapolitics and effective solidarity into everyday sexism. Human Relations, 72(1), 23–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726718780988.
van Stekelenburg, J., & Klandermans, B. (2013). The social psychology of protest. Current Sociology, 61(5–6), 886–905. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392113479314.
van Zomeren, M., Spears, R., Fischer, A. H., & Leach, C. W. (2004). Put your money where your mouth is! Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 649–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.649.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504.
Weis, A. S., Redford, L., Zucker, A. N., & Ratliff, K. A. (2018). Feminist identity, attitudes toward feminist prototypes, and willingness to intervene in everyday sexist events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(3), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318764694.
Wiley, S., Srinivasan, R., Finke, E., Firnhaber, J., & Shilinsky, A. (2013). Positive portrayals of feminist men increase men’s solidarity with feminists and collective action intentions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312464575.
Willett, C., Willett, J., & Sherman, Y. D. (2012). The seriously erotic politics of feminist laughter. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 79(19), 217–246. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/528059.
Funding
The present research was financially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad and Programa Operativo FEDER 2018 with research grants PSI2016–79812-P and B-SEJ-135-UGR18.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
My coauthors and I do not have any interests that might be interpreted as influencing or conflicting with this research. The procedures used in collection of data conform to current APA ethical standards for the protection of human subjects. These procedures were in accordance with ethical standards of the University of Granada. We also certify that the manuscript is not under review elsewhere and has not been previously published elsewhere in whole or in part.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 2230 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Riquelme, A.R., Carretero-Dios, H., Megías, J.L. et al. Joking for Gender Equality: Subversive Humor Against Sexism Motivates Collective Action in Men and Women with Weaker Feminist Identity. Sex Roles 84, 1–13 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01154-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01154-w