Abstract
In modern Western society, women commonly encounter media that conflates appearance and health. However, this phenomenon is seldom explored qualitatively from the perspective of the women who encounter and internalize these messages. The present study describes how a group of women perceive appearance, health, and wellness ideals promoted through media and social media as well as how they attempted to challenge and negotiate these. Qualitative data were collected from in-depth semi-structured interviews with 25 women (aged 22–72 years) who embraced a holistic health perspective in Perth, Western Australia. Thematic analysis of the data revealed multiple overarching themes, including the women’s recognition of unrealistic ideals in the media, the potential for harmful social comparisons, their desire to achieve the appearance of health and wellness, and the use of various strategies to modify their exposure to such media and uphold a positive body image. Some participants were challenged by media claiming a more “holistic” orientation in which ideals of appearance, health, and wellness are closely intertwined. The findings from our research provide timely guidance on mechanisms to promote positive body image amidst a rapidly changing media landscape, including the use of critical media literacy and social media literacy interventions. Such interventions should encourage critical appraisal of appearance ideals that are promoted under the guise of health and wellness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agar, M. (2013). The lively science. Minneapolis: Hillcrest Publishing Group.
Albertazzi, D., & Cobley, P. (2013). The media: An introduction (3rd ed.). London: Taylor and Francis.
Andrew, R., Tiggemann, M., & Clark, L. (2015). The protective role of body appreciation against media-induced body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 15, 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.07.005.
Aubrey, J. S. (2010). Looking good versus feeling good: An investigation of media frames of health advice and their effects on women’s body-related self-perceptions. Sex Roles, 63(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9768-4.
Australian Communications and Media Authority. (2017). Demand for digital connectivity at all-time high. Retrieved from https://www.acma.gov.au/theACMA/demand-for-digital-connectivity-at-all-time-high.
Australian Communications and Media Authority. (2019). Communications report 2017–2018. Retrieved from https://www.acma.gov.au/publications/2019-02/report/communications-report-2017-18.
Barker, K. K. (2014). Mindfulness meditation: Do-it-yourself medicalization of every moment. Social Science and Medicine, 106, 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.024.
Bazzini, D., Pepper, A., Swofford, R., & Cochran, K. (2015). How healthy are health magazines? A comparative content analysis of cover captions and images of women’s and men’s health magazines. Sex Roles, 72(5–6), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0456-2.
Beekhuyzen, J., Nielsen, S., & von Hellens, L. (2010). The Nvivo looking glass: Seeing the data through the analysis. In Proceedings of the QualIT Conference-Qualitative Research in IT & IT in Qualitative Research. Queensland University of Technology. Brisbane.
Betz, D. E., & Ramsey, L. R. (2017). Should women be “all about that bass?”: Diverse body-ideal messages and women’s body image. Body Image, 22, 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.04.004.
Boepple, L., & Thompson, J. K. (2014). A content analysis of healthy living blogs: Evidence of content thematically consistent with dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(4), 362–367. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22244.
Boepple, L., & Thompson, J. K. (2016). A content analytic comparison of fitspiration and thinspiration websites. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49(1), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22403.
Bozsik, F., Whisenhunt, B. L., Hudson, D. L., Bennett, B., & Lundgren, J. D. (2018). Thin is in? Think again: The rising importance of muscularity in the thin ideal female body. Sex Roles, 79(9–10), 609–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0886-0.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Brown, Z., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). Attractive celebrity and peer images on Instagram: Effect on women’s mood and body image. Body Image, 19, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.007.
Bullington, J. (2013). Health and illness and holistic health. In J. Bullington (Ed.), The expression of the psychosomatic body from a phenomenological perspective (pp. 81–96). Dordrecht: Springer.
Buote, V. M., Wilson, A. E., Strahan, E. J., Gazzola, S. B., & Papps, F. (2011). Setting the bar: Divergent sociocultural norms for women’s and men’s ideal appearance in real-world contexts. Body Image, 8(4), 322–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.06.002.
Cadzow, J. (2016). Pete Evans has gained a million-strong “tribe”, but is his advice irresponsible? Sydney morning herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/pete-evans-has-gained-a-millionstrong-tribe-but-is-his-advice-irresponsible-20161124-gswc1d.html.
Calogero, R. M. (2012). Objectification theory, self-objectification, and body image. In T. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Vol. 2, pp. 574–580). London: Academic Press (Elsevier). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384925-0.00091-2.
Calogero, R. M., Davis, W. N., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). The role of self-objectification in the experience of women with eating disorders. Sex Roles, 52(1–2), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-1192-9.
Carrotte, E. R., Prichard, I., & Lim, M. S. C. (2017). “Fitspiration” on social media: A content analysis of gendered images. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(3), e95. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6368.
Cash, T. F., & Smolak, L. (2011). Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention. New York: Guilford Press.
Chrisler, J. (2012). “Why can’t you control yourself?”: Fat should be a femininst issue. Sex Roles, 66, 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0095-1.
Cohen, R., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2017). The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women. Body Image, 23, 183–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002.
Cohen, R., Fardouly, J., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2019). #BoPo on Instagram: An experimental investigation of the effects of viewing body positive content on young women’s mood and body image. New Media & Society, 21(7), 1546–1564. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819826530.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin.
Dakanalis, A., & Riva, G. (2013). Mass media, body image and eating disturbances: The underlying mechanism through the lens of the objectification theory. In L. B. Sams & J. A. Keels (Eds.), Handbook on body image: Gender differences, sociocultural influences and health implications (pp. 217–236). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Dakanalis, A., Carrà, G., Calogero, R. M., Fida, R., Clerici, M., Zanetti, M. A., … Riva, G. (2015). The developmental effects of media-ideal internalization and self-objectification processes on adolescents’ negative body-feelings, dietary restraint, and binge eating. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(8), 997–1010. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0649-1.
Donovan, E. E., Miller, L. E., & Goldsmith, D. J. (2014). "Tell me about a time when . . . ": Studying health communication through in-depth interviews. In B. B. Whaley (Ed.), Research methods in health communication: Principles and application (pp. 21–40). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203115299.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2015). Negative comparisons about one’s appearance mediate the relationship between Facebook usage and body image concerns. Body Image, 12, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.10.004.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2016). Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.005.
Fardouly, J., Pinkus, R. T., & Vartanian, L. R. (2017). The impact of appearance comparisons made through social media, traditional media, and in person in women’s everyday lives. Body Image, 20, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.11.002.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202.
Fetterman, D. M. (2010). Ethnography: Step-by-step. California: Sage.
Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Bardone-Cone, A. M., Bulik, C. M., Wonderlich, S. A., Crosby, R. D., & Engel, S. G. (2014). Examining an elaborated sociocultural model of disordered eating among college women: The roles of social comparison and body surveillance. Body Image, 11, 488–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.012.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Fullagar, S. (2002). Governing the healthy body: Discourses of leisure and lifestyle within Australian health policy. Health, 6(1), 69–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/136345930200600104.
Gale, N. K., Heath, G., Cameron, E., Rashid, S., & Redwood, S. (2013). Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 13(117), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-13-117.
Goldstraw, D., & Keegan, B. J. (2016). Instagram’s ‘Fitspiration’ trend and its effect on young women’s self-esteem. Proceedings of the 29th Bled eConference (p. 190–198). University of Maribor. Bled, Slovenia. Retrieved from http://aisel.aisnet.org/bled2016/35.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460–476. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460.
Guilliatt, R. (2015, April 4). Belle Gibson, Amanda Rootsey, Jess Ainscough and others fight cancer with “wellness.” The Australian. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/life/weekend-australian-magazine/belle-gibson-amanda-rootsey-jess-ainscough-and-others-fight-cancer-with-wellness/news-story/efa1841b88d3e7563e9bc29a55e2a6d3
Haenfler, R. (2004). Rethinking subcultural resistance: Core values of the straight edge movement. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 33(4), 406–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241603259809.
Halliwell, E. (2013). The impact of thin idealized media images on body satisfaction: Does body appreciation protect women from negative effects? Body Image, 10, 509–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.07.004.
Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2005). The role of self-improvement and self-evaluation motives in social comparisons with idealised female bodies in the media. Body Image, 2(3), 249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.05.001.
Hesse-Biber, S., Leavy, P., Quinn, C. E., & Zoino, J. (2006). The mass marketing of disordered eating and eating disorders: The social psychology of women, thinness and culture. Women's Studies International Forum, 29(2), 208–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2006.03.007.
Higgins, J. W., & Begoray, D. (2012). Exploring the borderlands between media and health: Conceptualizing ‘critical media health literacy’. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 4, 136–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/SpringerReference_223477.
Homan, K. (2010). Athletic-ideal and thin-ideal internalization as prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Body Image, 7(3), 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.02.004.
Homan, K., McHugh, E., Wells, D., Watson, C., & King, C. (2012). The effect of viewing ultra-fit images on college women’s body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 9(1), 50–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.07.006.
Kelly, L., Burton, S., & Regan, L. (1994). Researching women’s lives or studying women’s oppression? Reflections on what constitutes feminist research. In M. Maynard & J. Purvis (Eds.), Researching women’s lives from a feminist perspective (pp. 27–48). London: Taylor & Francis.
Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2015). Thinspiration: Self-improvement versus self-evaluation social comparisons with thin-ideal media portrayals. Health Communication, 30(11), 1089–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.921270.
Kwan, S. (2009). Competing motivational discourses for weight loss: Means to ends and the nexus of beauty and health. Qualitative Health Research, 19(9), 1223–1233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732309343952.
Liimakka, S. (2014). Healthy appearances – Distorted body images? Young adults negotiating body motives. Journal of Health Psychology, 19(2), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105312468189.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. In Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park: Sage.
Lonergan, A. R., Bussey, K., Mond, J., Brown, O., Griffiths, S., Murray, S. B., … Mitchison, D. (2019). Me, my selfie, and I: The relationship between editing and posting selfies and body dissatisfaction in men and women. Body Image, 28, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.12.001.
Marengo, D., Longobardi, C., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2018). Highly-visual social media and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: The mediating role of body image concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 82, 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.003.
Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet, 365(9464), 1099–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6.
Mason, M. (2010). Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews. Qualitative Social Research, 11(3), 1–13 Retrieved from http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1428/3027.
Maynard, M. (1994). Methods, practice and epistemology: The debate about feminism and research. In M. Maynard & J. Purvis (Eds.), Researching women’s lives from a feminist perspective (pp. 10–27). London: Taylor & Francis.
McKinley, N. M., Cash, T. F., & Tiggemann, M. (2011). Cognitive-behavioral perspectives on body image. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (2nd ed., pp. 39–47). New York: Guilford Press.
McLean, S. A., Paxton, S. J., & Wertheim, E. H. (2016). The role of media literacy in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: A systematic review. Body Image, 19, 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.002.
McLean, S. A., Wertheim, E. H., Masters, J., & Paxton, S. J. (2017). A pilot evaluation of a social media literacy intervention to reduce risk factors for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(7), 847–851. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22708.
Menzel, J. E., & Levine, M. P. (2011). Embodying experiences and the promotion of positive body image: The example of competitive athletics. In R. Calogero, S. Tantleff-Dunn, & J. Thompson (Eds.), Self-objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions (pp. 163–186). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12304-008.
Morgan, R. (2019). Magazine readership continues to increase. Retrieved from http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/7877-australian-magazine-print-readership-and-cross-platform-audiences-december-2018-201902070406
Nissen, N. (2015). Naturalness as an ethical stance: Idea(l)s and practices of care in western herbal medicine in the UK. Anthropology & Medicine, 22(2), 162–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470.2015.1043789.
Oakley, A. (1981). Interviewing women: A contradiction in terms? In H. Roberts (Ed.), Doing feminist research (pp. 30–61). London: Routledge.
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). London: Sage.
Prichard, I., McLachlan, A. C., Lavis, T., & Tiggemann, M. (2018). The impact of different forms of #fitspiration imagery on body image, mood, and self-objectification among young women. Sex Roles, 78(11–12), 789–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0830-3.
Raggatt, M., Wright, C. J. C., Carrotte, E., Jenkinson, R., Mulgrew, K., Prichard, I., & Lim, M. S. C. (2018). “I aspire to look and feel healthy like the posts convey”: Engagement with fitness inspiration on social media and perceptions of its influence on health and wellbeing. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5930-7.
Reinharz, S., & Davidman, L. (1992). Feminist methods in social research. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ritchie, J., & Spencer, L. (2002). Qualitative data analysis for applied policy research. In A. M. Huberman & M. B. Miles (Eds.), The qualitative researcher’s companion (pp. 305–329). Thousand oaks: Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986274.
Robinson, L., Prichard, I., Nikolaidis, A., Drummond, C., Drummond, M., & Tiggemann, M. (2017). Idealised media images: The effect of fitspiration imagery on body satisfaction and exercise behaviour. Body Image, 22, 65–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.06.001.
Robison, J., & Carrier, K. (2004). The spirit and science of holistic health. Bloomington: AuthorHouse.
Rubin, L. R., Nemeroff, C. J., & Russo, N. F. (2004). Exploring feminist women’s body consciousness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00120.x.
Schneirov, M., & Geczik, J. D. (2003). A diagnosis for our times: Alternative health, from lifeworld to politics. Albany: SUNY Press.
Simpson, C. C., & Mazzeo, S. E. (2017). Skinny is not enough: A content analysis of fitspiration on pinterest. Health Communication, 32(5), 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1140273.
Slater, A., Varsani, N., & Diedrichs, P. C. (2017). #fitspo or #loveyourself? The impact of fitspiration and self-compassion Instagram images on women’s body image, self-compassion, and mood. Body Image, 22, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.06.004.
Taylor, B., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences: Methodologies, methods and processes. London: Routledge.
Tiggemann, M., & Barbato, I. (2018). “You look great!”: The effect of viewing appearance-related Instagram comments on women’s body image. Body Image, 27, 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.009.
Tiggemann, M., & McGill, B. (2004). The role of social comparison in the effect of magazine advertisements on women’s mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.23.26991.
Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2015). “Exercise to be fit, not skinny”: The effect of fitspiration imagery on women’s body image. Body Image, 15, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003.
Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2018). “Strong is the new skinny”: A content analysis of #fitspiration images on Instagram. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(8), 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316639436.
Tiggemann, M., Hayden, S., Brown, Z., & Veldhuis, J. (2018). The effect of Instagram “likes” on women’s social comparison and body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 26, 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.07.002.
Tylka, T. (2011). Positive psychology perspectives on body image. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (2nd ed., pp. 56–64). New York: Guilford Press.
Tylka, T., & Wood-Barcalow, N. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image, 14, 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001.
Veldhuis, J., Konijn, E. A., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2017). Boost your body: Self-improvement magazine messages increase body satisfaction in young adults. Health Communication, 32(2), 200–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2015.1113482.
Vinoski, E., Webb, J. B., Warren-Findlow, J., Brewer, K. A., & Kiffmeyer, K. A. (2017). Got yoga?: A longitudinal analysis of thematic content and models’ appearance-related attributes in advertisements spanning four decades of yoga journal. Body Image, 21, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.01.006.
Webb, J. B., Wood-Barcalow, N., & Tylka, T. (2015). Assessing positive body image: Contemporary approaches and future directions. Body Image, 14, 130–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.03.010.
Webb, J. B., Vinoski, E., Warren-Findlow, J., Padro, M. P., Burris, E. N., & Suddreth, E. M. (2017). Is the “yoga bod” the new skinny?: A comparative content analysis of mainstream yoga lifestyle magazine covers. Body Image, 20, 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.11.005.
Webb, J. B., Thomas, E. V., Rogers, C. B., Clark, V. N., Hartsell, E. N., & Putz, D. Y. (2019). Fitspo at every size? A comparative content analysis of #curvyfit versus #curvyyoga Instagram images. Fat Studies, 8(2), 154–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/21604851.2019.1548860.
Willis, L. E., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2014). Weighing women down: Messages on weight loss and body shaping in editorial content in popular women’s health and fitness magazines. Health Communication, 29(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.755602.
Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. London: Random House.
Wood-Barcalow, N., Tylka, T., & Augustus-Horvath, C. (2010). “But I like my body”: Positive body image characteristics and a holistic model for young-adult women. Body Image, 7(2), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.01.001.
Acknowledgements
Helen Monks (ORCID ID: 0000-0003-0806-5899), School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University and Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia; Leesa Costello, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University; Julie Dare, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University; Elizabeth Reid Boyd, School of Arts and Humanities, Edith Cowan University.
Funding
The present study was funded by Edith Cowan University’s Inspiring Minds Scholarship Fund.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Full ethics approval was received for this study prior to recruitment of participants via informed consent. This study was funded by Edith Cowan University’s Inspiring Minds Scholarship Fund. The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest associated with this manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 408 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Monks, H., Costello, L., Dare, J. et al. “We’re Continually Comparing Ourselves to Something”: Navigating Body Image, Media, and Social Media Ideals at the Nexus of Appearance, Health, and Wellness. Sex Roles 84, 221–237 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01162-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01162-w