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Borders and badges: Arizona’s children confront detention and deportation through art

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Abstract

Hostile and unpredictable immigration policies can have detrimental consequences for children of immigrants. This study provides a snapshot of children’s reactions to anti-immigrant policies in Arizona from 2007 to 2010. Through a visual content narrative analysis of 115 drawings by children in a community-run after-school program in Maricopa County, Phoenix, Arizona, this study chronicles, analyzes, and attempts to understand the ways children make sense of their positions and their families’ security in US society. The themes that emerged from children’s drawings include (1) detention and deportation, (2) violence and racism, and (3) resilience. The themes outlined in this paper suggest that in a continued repressive political context, children’s preoccupations with family separation are likely to have lasting consequences as these children transition into adulthood. For scholars, educators, and policymakers, this study reveals the consequences of deportation-based fear on children’s academic, emotional, and physical well-being.

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Notes

  1. In 1994, through the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the US-Mexico markets—except labor, notably—were fused together, creating a situation in which the United States increasingly relied on undocumented labor while simultaneously attempting to restrict its flow (De Genova 2004; Kandel and Massey, 2002; Ngai 1999, 2006, 2014; De Genova 2002).

  2. This record number of deportations was part of a strategic 10-year plan, Endgame, with the ultimate goal of deporting every “removable alien” in the next 10 years, and gave ICE a budget increase of 200% (Shahani and Greene 2009). This budget increase is a result of intense lobbying by private prison contractors and county jailers, including Correction Corporation of America (CCA) and the GEO Group (Doty and Wheatley 2013). The for-profit model applied to detention has generated “a detention industry totally divorced from public safety”—making a profit from each immigrant the main priority (Shahani and Greene 2009).

  3. Secure Communities “S-Comm” is a biometric sharing database between ICE, the FBI, and local law enforcement, which captures biometric information of any immigrant that any of these entities meets. Importantly, if an undocumented immigrant is getting questioned for a crime, or is detained because of a broken taillight, his or her information will be sent to ICE and federal authorities.

  4. The Criminal Alien Program (CAP) allows ICE to use and fund local facilities to interview, investigate, and hold undocumented people.

  5. Children under eighteen who are either foreign-born or US-born to immigrant parents.

  6. At the current rate of deportation, the Center of American Progress predicted that by 2016 there will be an increase of 15,000 more children entering the foster care system (Dreby 2012a; Garcia 2013).

  7. If an immigrant child arrived before the age of five, they are part of the 1.25-generation. If migration occurred when the child was older than five, they belong to the 1.5-generation. If migration happened in the teenage years they are generation 1.75.

  8. Subject matter themes included deportation, family separation, authority, protest, violence, respect, racism, and rights. Actors themes included Sheriff Arpaio, authority, parents, friends, and unspecified/unclear. And the coded emotions themes included sadness, fear, anger, other. Full list of codes is available in the appendices.

  9. Narratives in the drawings include taken away, incarceration, two sides of the border, and being alone.

  10. All children were given pseudonyms to protect their identity.

  11. During the Great Depression, in an effort to repatriate Mexicans, hundreds of Mexican Americans were put in trains and repatriated to south of the border against their will (Balderrama and Rodríguez 2006; Hoffman 1974).

  12. In 2006, then Arizona senator Russell Pearce suggested that Arizona should revive “Operation Wetback.” This operation marked another time in history (1954) where US citizens were “deported back to Mexico” in violation of their birthright citizenship (Hernández 2006; Jiménez 2011). A year later, Pearce—the creator of Senate Bill 1070—circulated an email to neo-Nazi and White Supremacy groups like the Ku Klux Klan to request their support in his efforts to pass this infamous bill (Greene 2013; Jiménez 2011).

  13. See http://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/trumps-immigration-solution-bring-back-controversial-operation-wetback-n461381.

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Acknowledgements

I want to offer sincere appreciation and gratitude for Leisy Ábrego, Judy Baca, and Carola Suárez-Orozco for mentoring and inspiring me. Thank you to my writing group and to Arleen Fernandez for all the unending support. I am also grateful to the thoughtful reviewers and editors of Latino Studies. I dedicate this work to the immigrant community in Arizona and to all migrants resisting and crossing physical and symbolic borders.

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    Silvia Rodriguez Vega

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Correspondence to Silvia Rodriguez Vega.

Appendices

Appendix A: Codes for content

Code

Definition

Deportation

Concerns with deportation, detainment and border, border issues. Includes following content: detainment, ICE vehicles, the border, ICE facilities, apprehensions, disappearances

Authorities

Police, sheriff car, helicopter, truck, highway patrol, sirens

Protesting

A statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something. People holding signs. Signs stating things

Physical violence (hitting, beating)

Behavior involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something. Image of weapons, guns, knife, bombs, tanks, electrical fence

Treated badly/humiliated (like animals)

To make (someone) feel ashamed and foolish by injuring their dignity and self-respect, esp. publicly

Family separation

To have family members divided by borders, circumstances, events, i.e., deportation, detention, interactions with law enforcement

Xenophobia/racism/discrimination/prejudice

An intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries

Rights (e.g., we are like everyone else)

A right that is believed to belong justifiably to every person

Appendix B: Codes for actors

Code

Definition

Arpaio

Sheriff Joe Arpaio of Maricopa County in Arizona. Infamous for his harsh policies on undocumented immigrants. Sheriff stars

Authority—ICE/police/highway patrol/sheriff deputies

Any public law-enforcement official

Parents

Mother or father, including stepmother and/or stepfather

Friends

Children/peers/friends

Other family members

Extended family, aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, siblings, and caretakers

Other adults

Adult not part of family

Unclear

Unclear, stick figure/person/bystander

Appendix C: Codes for emotions

Code

Definition

Fear

An unpleasant emotion caused by the belief that someone or something is dangerous, likely to cause pain, or a threat

Sadness

The condition or quality of being sad (crying/tears)

Anger

A strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, or hostility

Unsure

Unclear/misc

figure a

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Rodriguez Vega, S. Borders and badges: Arizona’s children confront detention and deportation through art. Lat Stud 16, 310–340 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41276-018-0132-0

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