Abstract
The religious life of Malcolm X is a vital chapter in the history of Islam and a challenge to both anti-Black racism and Sunni hegemony. Malcolm’s biographers have often separated his religion from his politics and his faith from his fight. This essay reads Malcolm’s autobiography, alongside his many speeches, interviews, correspondences, and FBI files, in light of his Islam, contending that his faith anchored his dedication to his kin, guiding his struggle for Black liberation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Deen: Arabic for creed or way of life
Malcolm’s upbringing and childhood education were characterized by his Garveyite parents’ emphasis on economic self-sufficiency, Black internationalism, and religious, philosophical, and cultural eclecticism. Malcolm grew up attending UNIA meetings with his father, Earl Little, and studying the Bible, as well as Black publications like the Garveyites’ Negro World, and newspapers from the Caribbean, under the tutelage of his mother, Louise Little. In addition, Malcolm was early on impressed with the brutal weight of America’s racist violence. Like the other members of his family, Malcolm saw the arson of his family’s home in Lansing, and then his father’s murder in Detroit, through the prism of a racist, white supremacist world. In effect, through his parents’ influence and his childhood experiences, Malcolm inherited the race-thinking and religious eclecticism of both Black Nationalism and Black Religion (X and Haley 1965; Marable 2011; DeCaro Jr. 1996).
Dhikr: the remembrance of Allah, manifested through both oral and embodied acts of devotion.
The story is well-known. When he caught wind of Hinton’s beating, arrest, and detention by the police, Malcolm rallied a small group of Muslims and marched, at sundown, to the 28th Precinct to demand to see Brother Johnson X. The police denied that they were holding any Muslims—until the crowd swelled to five hundred Harlemites. Malcolm was allowed to see Hinton briefly. On Malcolm’s insistence, the police transported Hinton to Harlem Hospital. Once Malcolm saw to it that Hinton was treated for his injuries, he and a hundred Muslims marched down Lenox Avenue to the hospital, gathering hundreds more Harlemites along their way. The crowd outside Harlem Hospital swelled to two thousand. The police were overwhelmed and called for backup. Within an hour, the crowd swelled to four thousand. A confrontation appeared inevitable - until Malcolm, stepping out from the hospital after being admitted to see Hinton again, reportedly made one silent gesture as a signal that dispersed the entire Muslim security detail, along with the crowd of several thousand Harlemites gathered around them. The shock and awe of Malcolm’s action has been well preserved. After the incident, an NYPD officer on duty at the blockade told a reporter from the New York Amsterdam News, ‘No one man should have that much power.’ (X and Haley, 149–150; Marable 2011).
Ummah: Arabic for community
On Malcolm’s insistence, the temples of the NOI were rebranded as mosques.
Including Gardner C. Taylor, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., Martin Luther King Jr., James Farmer, A. Philip Randolph, Ralph Bunche, Joseph H. Jackson, and James Forman.
Kufr: denying or concealing (as opposed to being merely ignorant of) the ‘truth’ that there is One God and that the One alone is worthy of worship.
One that resonates with the legacies of such Black prophets as Robert Alexander Young, David Walker, Edward Wilmot Blyden, Marcus Garvey, and, of course, Elijah Muhammad himself.
My emphasis in italics.
References
DeCaro Jr., L. A. (1996). On the side of my people: a religious life of Malcolm X. New York & London: New York University Press.
Essien-Udom, E. U. (1962). Black nationalism: a search for an identity in America. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
FBI. (1925-1965). Malcolm Little (Malcolm X) HQ File. https://vault.fbi.gov/malcolm-little-malcolm-x.
Gomez, M. (2005). Black crescent: the experience and legacy of African Muslims in the Americas. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jackson, S. (2005). Islam and the Blackamerican: looking toward the third resurrection. New York: Oxford University Press.
Marable, M. (2011). Malcolm X: a life of reinvention. New York: Penguin.
Mitchell, S. (1981). Shepherd of black sheep: a commentary on the life of Malcolm X with an on the scene account of his assassination. Macon: Harriet Tubman Foundation.
X, M. (1960). Harlem Freedom Rally. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/p/malcolm-x-speeches_9918.html.
X, M. (1963a). Malcolm X at UC Berkeley. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/2013/06/uc-berkeley-october-11-1963.html.
X, M. (1963b). Letter to Whitney Young (the Urban League). http://malcolm-x.org/docs/.
X, M (1963c). God’s Judgement of White America. http://malcolm-x.org/docs.
X, M. (1964a). A Declaration of Independence. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/p/malcolm-x-speeches_9918.html.
X, M. (1964b). Letter to the Egyptian Gazette. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/p/malcolm-x-speeches_9918.html.
X, M. (1964c). The Ballot or the Bullet. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/p/malcolm-x-speeches_9918.html.
X, M. (1965). Not Just an American Problem, But a World Problem. http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/p/malcolm-x-speeches_9918.html.
X, M., & Barnes, J. (2009). Evolution of Malcolm X’s views on women. The Militant, 74(18) http://www.themilitant.com/2010/7418/741850.html.
X, M., & Breitman, G. (1965). Malcolm X speaks: selected speeches and statements. New York: Merit Publishers.
X, M., & Clark, S. (1992). February 1965: the final speeches. New York: Pathfinder.
X, M., & Haley, A. (1965). The autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahmed, A. Islam and Black America: the Religious Life of Malcolm X. J Afr Am St 24, 456–481 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-020-09492-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-020-09492-5