Abstract
It has long been recognized that the presence of politicians on the boards of directors of public firms may create inefficiencies. Nevertheless, research has so far neglected the effect of political affiliation on the appointment of Members of Parliament to the boards of public firms. This article intends to fill this gap by conducting an empirical analysis on a sample of 945 deputies of the Italian Parliament elected over the period 1996–2001. Regression discontinuity estimates show that the centre-left coalition is about 25 percentage points more likely to appoint its Members of Parliament to the board of public enterprises than the centre-right coalition. Political appointments become more pronounced when the centre-left forms a governing coalition.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the Managing Editor, George Wamser, and two anonymous reviewers for their useful comments and suggestions. A special thank goes to Matteo Picchio for his insightful comments. We also would like to thank participants at the 12th Annual Meeting of the Portuguese Economic Journal in Lisbon, Portugal and those of the 30th Annual Conference of the Italian Society of Public Economics. The usual disclaimer applies.
References
Anastassopoulos, J. 1985. “State-owned Enterprises between Autonomy and Dependency.” Journal of Public Policy 5 (4): 521–539. 10.1017/S0143814X00003305Search in Google Scholar
Baturo, A., and S. Mikhaylov. 2016. “Blair Disease? Business Careers of the Former Democratic Heads of State and Government.” Public Choice 166 (3–4): 335–354. 10.1007/s11127-016-0325-8. Search in Google Scholar
Beland, L. 2015. “Political Parties and Labor-Market Outcomes: Evidence from US States.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7 (4): 198–220. 10.1257/app.20120387. Search in Google Scholar
Beland, L., and S. Oloomi. 2017. “Party Affiliation and Public Spending: Evidence from US Governors.” Economic Inquiry 55 (2): 982–995. 10.1111/ecin.12393. Search in Google Scholar
Blondel, J. 1985. Government and Ministers in the Contemporary World. London: Sage. Search in Google Scholar
Boeri, T., A. Merlo, and A. Prat. 2010. Management and Politics in Modern Italy. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Search in Google Scholar
Boubakri, N., J. C. Cosset, and W. Saar. 2008. “Political Connections of Newly Privatized Firms.” Journal of Corporate Finance 14 (5): 654–673. 10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2008.08.003. Search in Google Scholar
Calonico, S., M. D. Cattaneo, and M. H. Farrell. 2018. “On the Effect of Bias Estimation on Coverage Accuracy in Nonparametric Inference.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 113 (522): 767–779. 10.1080/01621459.2017.1285776. Search in Google Scholar
Calonico, S., M. D. Cattaneo, M. H. Farrell, and R. Titiunik. 2016. “Regression Discontinuity Designs using Covariates.” Working paper, available at http://www-personal.umich.edu/~cattaneo/papers/Calonico-Cattaneo-/Farrell-Titiunik_2016_wp.pdf. Search in Google Scholar
Calonico, S., M. D. Cattaneo, M. H. Farrell, and R. Titiunik. 2017. “rdrobust: Software for Regression-Discontinuity Designs.” The Stata Journal 17 (2): 372–404. 10.1177/1536867X1701700208Search in Google Scholar
Calonico, S., M. D. Cattaneo, and R. Titiunik. 2014. “Robust Nonparametric Confidence Intervals for Regression-Discontinuity Designs.” Econometrica 82 (6): 2295–2326. 10.3982/ECTA11757. Search in Google Scholar
Calonico, S., M. D. Cattaneo, and R. Titiunik. 2015. “Optimal Data-Driven Regression Discontinuity Plots.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 110 (512): 1753–1769. 10.1080/01621459.2015.1017578. Search in Google Scholar
Carretta, A., V. Farina, A. Gon, and A. Parisi. 2012. “Politicians ‘on Board’: Do Political Connections Affect Banking Activities in Italy?.” European Management Review 9 (2): 75–83. 10.1111/j.1740-4762.2012.01032.x. Search in Google Scholar
Claveria, S., and T. Verge. 2015. “Post-Ministerial Occupation in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Ambition, Individual Resources and Institutional Opportunity Structures.” European Journal of Political Research 54 (4): 819–835. 10.1111/1475-6765.12107. Search in Google Scholar
D’Alimonte, R. 2005. “Italy: A Case of Fragmented Bipolarism.” In The Politics of Electoral Systems, edited by M. Gallagher and P. Mitchell, 253–276. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 10.1093/0199257566.003.0012Search in Google Scholar
de Dios, M. S. 1999. “Parliamentary Party Discipline in Spain.” In Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government, edited by S. Bowler, D. M. Farrell, and R. S. Katz, 141–162. The Ohio State University Press. 10.2307/j.ctv177tghd.13Search in Google Scholar
De Mucci, R., G. Agamennone, M. De Vitis, and D. Lofano. 2008. “Le Porte Girevoli: Il “Riciclaggio” dei non Eletti.” In La Politica come Professione, edited by R. De Mucci, 147–194. Roma: Luiss University Press. Search in Google Scholar
Di Mascio, F. 2011. “Come i Partiti Controllano lo Stato: Il Patronage in Europa.” Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica 41 (2): 291–314. 10.1426/34969. Search in Google Scholar
Di Mascio, F. 2012. “Changing Political Parties, Persistent Patronage: The Italian Case in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative European Politics 10 (4): 377–398. 10.1057/cep.2011.4. Search in Google Scholar
Diamanti, I. 1995. “Partiti e Modelli.” Almanacco di Politica ed Economia, 71–81. Search in Google Scholar
Dörrenbächer, N. 2016. “Patterns of Post-Cabinet Careers: When One Door Closes Another Door Opens?” Acta Politica 51 (4): 472–491. 10.1057/ap.2016.10. Search in Google Scholar
Einaudi, L. 1927. “Le Caratteristiche dei Bisogni Pubblici.” La Riforma Sociale, 166–171. Search in Google Scholar
Ennser-Jedenastik, L. 2014a. “Political Control and Managerial Survival in State-Owned Enterprises.” Governance 27 (1): 135–161. 10.1111/gove.12023. Search in Google Scholar
Ennser-Jedenastik, L. 2014b. “The Politics of Patronage and Coalition: How Parties Allocate Managerial Positions in State-Owned Enterprises.” Political Studies 62: 398–417. 10.1111/1467-9248.12031. Search in Google Scholar
Ferreira, F., and J. Gyourko. 2009. “Do Political Parties Matter? Evidence from US Cities.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (1): 399–422. 10.1162/qjec.2009.124.1.399. Search in Google Scholar
Folke, O., S. Hirano, and J. M. Snyder. 2011. “Patronage and Election in US States.” American Political Science Review 105 (3): 567–585. 10.1017/S0003055411000256. Search in Google Scholar
Galasso, V., and T. Nannicini. 2011. “Competing on Good Politicians.” American Political Science Review 105 (1): 79–99. 10.1017/S0003055410000535. Search in Google Scholar
Gelman, A., and G. Imbens. 2019. “Why High-Order Polynomials Should Not Be Used in Regression Discontinuity Designs.” Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 37 (3): 447–456. 10.1080/07350015.2017.1366909. Search in Google Scholar
Hahn, J., P. Todd, and W. Van der Klaauw. 2001. “Identification and Estimation of Treatment Effects with a Regression-Discontinuity Design.” Econometrica 69 (1): 201–209. 10.1111/1468-0262.00183. Search in Google Scholar
Hopkin, J., and C. Paolucci. 1999. “The Business Firm Model of Party Organisation: Cases from Spain and Italy.” European Journal of Political Research 35 (3): 307–339. 10.1111/1475-6765.00451. Search in Google Scholar
Imbens, G., and K. Kalyanaraman. 2012. “Optimal Bandwidth Choice for the Regression Discontinuity Estimator.” The Review of Economic Studies 79 (3): 933–959. 10.1093/restud/rdr043. Search in Google Scholar
Kauder, B., N. Potrafke, and M. Riem. 2017. “Do Parties Punish MPs for Voting Against the Party Line?” CESifo Economic Studies 63 (3): 317–332. 10.1093/cesifo/ifx006. Search in Google Scholar
Karantounias, V., and D. Pinelli. 2016. “Local State-Owned Enterprises in Italy: Inefficiencies and Ways Forward.” In ECONOMIC BRIEF, Vol. 010. European Commission. Search in Google Scholar
Kitschelt, H., and S. Wilkinson. 2007. “Citizen-Politician Linkages: an Introduction.” In Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition, 1–49. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511585869Search in Google Scholar
Kleibrink, A. 2015. Political Elites and Decentralization Reforms in the Post-socialist Balkans: Regional Patronage Networks in Serbia and Croatia. Palgrave MacMillan. 10.1057/9781137495723Search in Google Scholar
Kopecky, P., P. Mair, and M. Spirova. 2012. Party patronage and party government in European democracies. Oxford University Press. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199599370.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Lee, D. S. 2001. “The Electoral Advantage to Incumbency and Voters’ Valuation of Politicians’ Experience: A Regression Discontinuity Analysis of Elections to the US.” NBER Working Paper No. 8441. 10.3386/w8441Search in Google Scholar
Lee, D. S. 2008. “Randomized Experiments from Non-Random Selection in US House Elections.” Journal of Econometrics 142 (2): 675–697. 10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.004. Search in Google Scholar
Lee, D. S., and T. Lemieux. 2010. “Regression Discontinuity Designs in Economics.” Journal of Economic Literature 48 (2): 281–355. 10.1257/jel.48.2.281. Search in Google Scholar
Lewis, D. E. 2010. The Politics of Presidential Appointments: Political Control and Bureaucratic Performance. Princeton University Press. 10.2307/j.ctt7rnqzSearch in Google Scholar
Mainwaring, S., and A. Pérez Liñán. 1997. “Party Discipline in the Brazilian Constitutional Congress.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 22 (4): 453–483. 10.2307/440339. Search in Google Scholar
Mattozzi, A., and A. Merlo. 2008. “Political Careers or Career Politicians?” Journal of Public Economics 92: 597–608. 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.10.006. Search in Google Scholar
McCrary, J. 2008. “Manipulation of the Running Variable in the Regression Discontinuity Design: A Density Test.” Journal of Econometrics 142 (2): 698–714. 10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.005. Search in Google Scholar
Menozzi, A., M. Gutiérrez Urtiaga, and D. Vannoni. 2011. “Board Composition, Political Connections, and Performance in State-Owned Enterprises.” Industrial and Corporate Change 21 (3): 671–698. 10.1093/icc/dtr055. Search in Google Scholar
Niessen, A., and S. Ruenzi. 2010. “Political Connectedness and Firm Performance: Evidence from Germany.” German Economic Review 11 (4): 441–464. 10.1111/j.1468-0475.2009.00482.x. Search in Google Scholar
Panebianco, A. 1995. “Tre Mosse Necessarie per un Vero Partito.” Liberal 4: 8–9. Search in Google Scholar
Pavese, C. 2010. “Le Municipalizzate in Italia.” Atti della seconda Conferenza Nazionale dei Servizi Pubblici Locali.Search in Google Scholar
Pettersson-Lidbom, P. 2008. “Do Parties Matter for Economic Outcomes? A Regression Discontinuity Approach.” Journal of the European Economic Association 6 (5): 1037–1056. 10.1162/JEEA.2008.6.5.1037. Search in Google Scholar
Picchio, M., and S. Staffolani. 2019. “Does Apprenticeship Improve Job Opportunities? A Regression Discontinuity Approach.” Empirical Economics 56 (1): 23–60. 10.1007/s00181-017-1350-2. Search in Google Scholar
Pollock, J. K. 1937. “The cost of patronage system.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 189 (1): 29–34. 10.1177/000271623718900106Search in Google Scholar
Porter, J. 2003. “Estimation in the Regression Discontinuity Model.” Unpublished Manuscript. Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 5–19. Search in Google Scholar
Sartori, G. 2005. Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis. ECPR press. Search in Google Scholar
Stokes, S., et al.. 2013. Brokers, Voters and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781107324909Search in Google Scholar
Stolz, K., and M. Kintz. 2014. “Post-Cabinet Careers in Britain and The US: Theory, Concepts and Empirical Illustrations.” Working paper presented at ECPR General Conference. Search in Google Scholar
Traber, D., S. Hug, and P. Sciarini. 2014. “Party Unity in the Swiss Parliament: The Electoral Connection.” The Journal of Legislative Studies 20 (2): 193–215. 10.1080/13572334.2013.837259. Search in Google Scholar
Ware, A. 1996. Political parties and party systems. Oxford University Press. Search in Google Scholar
Würfel, M. 2018. “Life after the Bundestag: An Analysis of the Post-Parliamentary Careers of German MPs.” German Politics 27 (3): 295–316. 10.1080/09644008.2017.1344642. Search in Google Scholar
Code and Datasets
The author(s) published code and data associated with this article in the ZBW Journal Data Archive, a storage platform for datasets. See: http://doi.org/10.15456/ger.2019302.170040.
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston