Abstract
Rich literature on the representation of women in advertising has repeatedly concluded a message in keeping with a GDP-promoting agenda: with economic development and modernization, women’s status has been elevated and they appear in professional and other settings beyond domesticity. Amid this optimism, the present study cautions that women’s elevated status and transformed roles should not give way to the exuberance on display in many sectors. Motivated by the unusual persistence of women’s decorative role against the background of pro-egalitarian industrialization and modernity, this study, drawing on advertising discourse in Cosmopolitan, the world’s leading women’s magazine, aims to investigate the gender ideology that dehumanizes women by exploring the various dehumanizing metaphors and the visual and linguistic codes deployed to construct the metaphors. In identifying and analyzing two major dehumanizing metaphors – WOMEN ARE OBJECTS and WOMEN ARE ANIMALS – this study outlines a critical metaphorical landscape that goes beyond the warfare metaphor which is popular in various fields (e.g. women, health care, and economy), and highlights HUMAN BEINGS ARE THINGS metaphors as a major instrument in constructing dehumanizing discourse and ideology.
About the author
Chaoyuan Li (b. 1985) is a full-time lecturer at the School of Translation Studies, Xi’an International Studies University. Her research interests include (multimodal) discourse analysis and translation studies. Her recent publications include “The study of Chinese-language advertisements” (book chapter, 2019), “Facework by global brands across Twitter and Weibo” (2018), and “Sociolinguistic studies of new media – review and prospect” (2016).
References
Adams, Carol J. & Josephine Donovan (eds.). 1996. Beyond animal rights: A feminist caring ethic for the treatment of animals New York: The Continuum Publishing Co.Search in Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. 1989. Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. 1993. Bodies that matter: The discursive limits of “sex.” London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Bumpass, Larry L. & Minja K. Choe. 2004. Attitudes relating to marriage and family life. In Noriko O. Tsuya & Larry L. Bumpass (eds.), Marriage, work, and family life in comparative perspective: Japan, South Korea, and the United States 19–38. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.10.1515/9780824844509-005Search in Google Scholar
Chan, Kara & Hong Cheng. 2002. One country, two systems: Cultural values reflected in Chinese and Hong Kong television commercials. Gazette, International Journal for Communication Studies 64(4). 385–400.10.1177/174804850206400405Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, Hong. 1997. “Holding up half of the sky”? A sociocultural comparison of gender-role portrayals in Chinese and US advertising. International Journal of Advertising 16. 295–319.10.1080/02650487.1997.11104698Search in Google Scholar
Cheng, Hong & Guofang Wan. 2008. Holding up half of the “ground”: Women portrayed in subway advertisements in China. In Katherine T. Frith & Kavita Karan (eds.), Commercializing women: Images of Asian women in the media (Women, Culture and Mass Communication), 11–32. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.Search in Google Scholar
Cheong, Yin Yuen. 2004. The construal of Ideational meaning in print advertisements. In Kay L. O’Halloran (ed.), Multimodal discourse analysis: Systemic-functional perspectives, 163– 198. London/New York: Continuum.Search in Google Scholar
Cosmopolitan Magazine. USA Edition. March 2011. New York, NY: Hearst.Search in Google Scholar
Cosmopolitan Magazine. USA Edition. September 2011. New York, NY: Hearst.Search in Google Scholar
del-Teso-Craviotto, Marisol. 2006. Words that matter: Lexical choice and gender ideologies in women’s magazines. Journal of Pragmatics 38. 2003–2021.10.1016/j.pragma.2005.03.012Search in Google Scholar
Denys, Patricia. 2011. Animals and women as meat. The Brock Review 12(1). 44–50.10.26522/br.v12i1.340Search in Google Scholar
Eckert, Patricia & Sally McConnell-Ginet. 1992. Think practically and look locally: Language and gender as community-based practice. Annual Review of Anthropology 21. 461–490.10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.002333Search in Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope & McConnell-Ginet, Sally. 2003. Language and gender Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511791147Search in Google Scholar
El Refaie, Elisabeth. 2003. Understanding visual metaphor. Visual Communication 2(1). 75–95.10.1177/1470357203002001755Search in Google Scholar
Feng, Dezheng & Kay O’Halloran. 2013. The visual representation of metaphor: A social semiotic approach. Review of Cognitive Linguistics 11(2). 320–335.10.1075/rcl.11.2.07fenSearch in Google Scholar
Ferree, Myra M. 1990. Beyond separate spheres: Feminism and family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family 52. 866–884.10.2307/353307Search in Google Scholar
Forceville, Charles. 1994. Pictorial metaphor in advertisements. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 9(1). 1–29.10.1207/s15327868ms0901_1Search in Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1990 [1976]. The history of sexuality vol. 1 (Robert Hurley, Trans). New York: Vintage Books.Search in Google Scholar
Gaarder, Emily. 2005. Connecting inequalities: Women and the animal rights movement. PhD dissertation, Arizona State University.Search in Google Scholar
Gibbons, Judith L. & Beverly A. Hamby & Wanda Dennis. Denis. 1997. Researching gender-role ideologies internationally and cross-culturally. Psychology of Women Quarterly 21. 151–170.10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00106.xSearch in Google Scholar
Goatly, Andrew. 1997. The language of metaphors London: Routledge.10.4324/9780203210000Search in Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1979. Gender advertisements Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Halliday, Michael A. K. 1994. An introduction to functional grammar. London: Arnold.Search in Google Scholar
Hung, Kineta H., Stella Yiyuan Li & Russell W. Belk. 2007. Glocal understandings: Female readers’ perceptions of the new woman in Chinese advertising. Journal of International Business Studies 38. 1034–1051.10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400303Search in Google Scholar
Johansson, Perry. 2001. Selling the “Modern Woman”: Consumer culture and Chinese gender politics. In Shoma Munshi (ed.), Images of the “Modern Woman” in Asia 94–122. Surrey: Curzon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Kress, Gunther & Theo van Leeuwen. 1996. Reading images: The grammar of visual design London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors we live by Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Search in Google Scholar
Lazar, Michelle M. 2009. Gender, war, and body politics: A critical multimodal analysis of metaphor in advertising. In Kathleen Ahrens (ed.), Politics, gender and conceptual metaphors, 209–234. London: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9780230245235_10Search in Google Scholar
Lim, Fei Victor. 2004. Developing an integrative multi-semiotic model. In Kay L. O’Halloran (ed.), Multimodal discourse analysis: Systemic-functional perspectives 220–245. London/New York: Continuum.Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Chyong Ling. 2008. Sexual issues: The analysis of female role portrayal preferences in Taiwanese print ads. Journal of business ethics 83. 409–418.10.1007/s10551-007-9628-5Search in Google Scholar
MacKinnon, Catharine. 1989. Toward a feminist theory of the state Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mason, Karen O., John L. Czajka & Sara Arber. 1976. Change in U.S. women’s sex-role attitudes, 1964–1974. American Sociological Review 41. 573–596.10.2307/2094837Search in Google Scholar
Mason, Karen O. & Yu-Hsia Lu. 1988. Attitudes toward women's familial roles: Changes in the United States, 1977–1985. Gender & Society 2. 39–57.10.1177/089124388002001004Search in Google Scholar
Nussbaum, Martha C. 1995. Objectification. Philosophy & Public Affairs 24(4). 249–291.10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.xSearch in Google Scholar
Ortner, Sherry. 1974. Is female to male as nature is to culture? In Michelle Z. Rosaldo & Louise Lamphere (eds.), Woman, culture, and society 68–87. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Pollay, Richard W. 1986. The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing 50. 18–36.10.1177/002224298605000202Search in Google Scholar
Rudman, Laurie A. & Kris Mescher. 2012. Of animals and objects: Men’s implicit dehumanization of women and likelihood of sexual aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38(6). 734–746.10.1177/0146167212436401Search in Google Scholar
TED. 2014. TED Talk: Alexa Meade: Your body is my canvas. At http://www.ted.com/talks/alexa_meade (accessed 29 April 2014)Search in Google Scholar
Tse, David K., Russell. W. Belk & Nan Zhou. 1989. Becoming a consumer society: A longitudinal and cross-cultural content analysis of prints ads from Hong Kong, the People’s Republic of China, and Taiwan. Journal of Consumer Research 15. 457–472.10.1086/209185Search in Google Scholar
Wu, Doreen Dongying & Agatha Man-kwan Chung. 2011. Hybridized images: Representations of the “modern woman” across mainland China and Hong Kong TV commercials. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 21(2). 177–195.10.1075/japc.21.2.02wuSearch in Google Scholar
Zhang, Lin, Pataradech T. Srisupandit & Debra Cartwright. 2009. A comparison of gender role portrayals in magazine advertising: The United States, China and Thailand. Management Research News 32(7). 683–700.10.1108/01409170910965279Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Yan Bing & Jake Harwood. 2004. Modernization and tradition in an age of globalization: Cultural values in Chinese television commercials. Journal of Communication 54(1). 156–172.10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02619.xSearch in Google Scholar
© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston