Source, distribution and emerging threat of micro- and nanoplastics to marine organism and human health: Socio-economic impact and management strategies
Graphical abstract
Section snippets
Authors’ contribution
M. Mofijur: Writing – original draft. S.F. Ahmed: Conceptualisation and Writing – original draft. S.M. Ashrafur Rahman: Writing – original draft. Sk. Yasir Arafat Siddiki: Writing – original draft. A.B.M. Saiful Islam: Writing – original draft. M. Shahabuddin: Writing – original draft. Hwai Chyuan Ong: Writing – review & editing. T.M.I Mahlia: Supervision. F. Djavanroodi: Supervision. Pau Loke Show: Writing – review & editing.
Classification and source of micro- and nanoplastics
MPs/NPs in the marine environment consist of particles of varying sizes and variable densities and chemical structures (Duis and Coors, 2016). Table 2 shows the size-based classification of MPs/NPs. While MPs can be classified as primary or secondary, as yet there is no precise concept of ‘nanoplastics’ and so research has evolved in recent years to distinguish plastic particles [16]. Primary MPs were used and detected in several industrial processes (Hernandez et al., 2017b) while secondary
Transfer of micro- and nanoplastics into the marine environment
MPs/NPs arising from unsustainable waste disposal are transferred either directly or indirectly to the ocean (Dąbrowska et al., 2021). Land-based MPs/NPs may reach the ocean by wind, soil, and water (Boucher and Friot, 2017; He et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019). Land-based plastic waste contributes to 98% of the plastics present as aquatic waste and waterways have been reported as the main route (Zhang et al., 2016). MPs generated through personal care items or cosmetic media reach the marine
Degradation of micro- and nanoplastics under marine conditions
Polymer degradation is a chemical process through which the structure and properties of the polymer changes. The degradation process of different polymers differs depending on the chemical structure of the polymer. The degradation of polymers results in the degradation of plastic materials causing changes such as an increase in brittleness and the formation of powdery fragments. Fig. 4 shows the chemical structures of some biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers in the marine environment.
Global distribution of micro- and nanoplastics in the marine environment
The concentration of MPs/NPs in the ocean is increasing at an alarming rate, particularly in the past few decades (Di Mauro et al., 2017). Human activities are the main source of MPs and NPs in the oceans. However, the amount of plastic waste in a marine environment adjacent to population is not directly correlated in terms of the amount of waste to size of the population, as illustrated in Table 3. As observed, the degree of MPs in the coastal area of China (Zhao et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2018
Impact of micro- and nanoplastics on marine organism
MPs and NPs have become a recent concern, affecting marine organisms significantly as shown in Fig. 6. Although plastics are regarded as biochemically inert due to the high surface area, the use of sub-micron additives has increased in commercial thermoplastic applications. Microplastic use has become both ubiquitous and widespread, however, information on the biological impact of microplastics on marine organisms is only now emerging. This is increasingly becoming a scientific concern due to
Impact of micro- and nanoplastics on human health
MPs and NPs have a negative environmental effect due to their high degree of fragmentation. The high level of waste and degradation resistance makes MPs/NPs a significant global environmental issue. Given the environmental persistence and global abundance, exposure to MPs/NPs by humans and marine organisms is inevitable. Current evidence indicates that both marine organisms and mammals can absorb MPs/NPs. A significant amount of MPs/NPs flow into the marine environment every year and are
Socio-economic impact of micro- and nanoplastics
MPs/NPs significantly affect the socio-economic life of humans. Social harm related to microplastics and nanoplastics involves a decline in a given area's recreational, architectural or educational standards and threats to human health. Economic harm includes direct costs and income loss due to MPs/NPs in the form of marine litter, affecting several marine sectors including aquaculture, agriculture, fisheries, transportation, power generation, local authorities, industrial use, and tourism.
Strategies for managing micro- and nanoplastics
Plastics have been growing exponentially for several decades and the abundance of MP and NP particles will likely remain high in the years ahead. To reduce the entry of MPs/NPs into marine organisms and humans, it is important to recognize the sources and groups of these plastics and NPs. Moreover, building public knowledge through education in the private and public sectors will help raise awareness of micro and nanoplastics. According to the report produced by the Australian National Centre
Conclusions and future perspective
Plastics are one of the most influential material families in the 21st century since they are widely used and have a significant impact on our everyday life. Whilst the socioeconomic advantages of plastics are commendable, these products are one of the main sources of environmental pollution. The degradation of plastic produces MPs and NPs with different physical and chemical properties from the respective bulk plastic material. MPs and NPs are very small, light, and colourful particles that
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the project 2017-212-Eng, Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia for providing financial support.
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