Abstract
Context
The late 20th and early twenty-first centuries saw massive urbanizations across the world, leading considerate changes in land-cover/land-use, and posing significant threats to UNESCO recognized heritage.
Objectives
The Complex of Huế Monuments, one of World Heritage Site in the centre of Vietnam, is now facing such challenges. This paper conducts a systematic spatial and temporal analysis for a better insight into the contemporary conflict between preserving the historical landscape and developing the urban areas.
Methods
The analysis involves: (1) classification of land-cover/land-use between 1995 and 2016 using SPOT data; (2) investigation of the urbanization intensity index; (3) identification of key metrics of landscape, spatial index, and natural hazard indicators to build a risk map of the heritage sites; and (4) a final assessment of the risks, as results of urban expansion, on the Outstanding Universal Values (OUV) of these selected samples.
Results
The results show that monuments are under threat as risks increased from 1995 to 2016 with a considerable correlation between urbanization intensity index and the risks to OUV. In particular, the area with high risk to OUV increased from 19.78% in 1995 to 23.74% in 2016, and the increasing percentage for the area with very high risk was from 1.26% to 6.67%, respectively.
Conclusions
The study area is an example of many similar worldwide cultural heritages that might be threatened by socio-economic development. The successful implementation of the approach for assessing heritage risk presented in this study can be used for other areas with similar characteristics.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
taken from the same SPOT satellite image acquired in 2016. The list of historical sites are taken from by Pham et al. (2019)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Accardo G, Giani E, Giovagnoli A (2003) The Risk Map of Italian Cultural Heritage. J Archit Conserv 9:41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556207.2003.10785342
Agapiou A, Alexakis DD, Lysandrou V et al (2015a) Impact of urban sprawl to cultural heritage monuments: The case study of Paphos area in Cyprus. J Cult Herit 16:671–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2014.12.006
Agapiou A, Lysandrou V, Alexakis DD et al (2015b) Cultural heritage management and monitoring using remote sensing data and GIS: The case study of Paphos area, Cyprus. Comput Environ Urban Syst 54:230–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2015.09.003
Alcaraz Tarragüel A, Krol B, van Westen C (2012) Analysing the possible impact of landslides and avalanches on cultural heritage in Upper Svaneti, Georgia. J Cult Herit 13:453–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2012.01.012
Balk DL, Nghiem SV, Jones BR et al (2019) Up and out: A multifaceted approach to characterizing urbanization in Greater Saigon, 2000–2009. Landsc Urban Plan 187:199–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.009
Bonazza A, Drdácký M, Hanus C, et al (2018) Study on safeguarding cultural heritage from natural and man-made disasters: a comparative analysis of risk management in the EU.
Bouchachi B, Zhong Y (2017) Monitoring urban land cover/land use change in algiers city using landsat images (1987–2016) ISPRS - Int Arch Photogramm Remote Sens Spat. Inf Sci. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W7-1083-2017
Briassoulis H (2019) Analysis of Land Use Change: Theoretical and Modeling Approaches. Web Book of Regional Science. 3. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/rri-web-book/3
Bui Q-T, Van Pham M, Hang NTT et al (2018) Hybrid model to optimize object-based land cover classification by meta-heuristic algorithm: an example for supporting urban management in Ha Noi. Viet Nam Int J Digit Earth. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2018.1542039
Campiani A, Lingle A, Lercari N (2019) Spatial analysis and heritage conservation: Leveraging 3-D data and GIS for monitoring earthen architecture. J Cult Herit 39:166–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2019.02.011
Chadee S, Stoute V (2018) Development of an urban intensity index to facilitate urban ecosystem studies in Trinidad and Tobago. J Appl Stat 45:508–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/02664763.2017.1282440
Chen Y, Yu S (2017) Impacts of urban landscape patterns on urban thermal variations in Guangzhou, China. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinformation 54:65–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2016.09.007
Choi J, Lee S, Ji S et al (2016) Landscape Analysis to Assess the Impact of Development Projects on Forests. Sustainability 8:1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8101012
Cira D, Arish Dastur, Kilroy A, et al (2012) Vietnam Urbanization Review. Doi: https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.5100.6249
Dang VB (2018) The role of ecological landscape on the banks of Huong river - an ecocity, heritage city of Hue Ancient Capital, in: International Symposium on ‘Sustainable Management and Appropriate Utilization of the Cultural Landscape and Historical-Eco System at Royal Tombs of Nguyen Dynasty and Huong River’s Upstream Basin.’ Hue Monument Conservation Centre (HMCC)
Das M, Das A (2019) Dynamics of Urbanization and its impact on Urban Ecosystem Services (UESs): A study of a medium size town of West Bengal, Eastern India. J Urban Manag 8:420–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2019.03.002
De Noronha VE, Cabral P, Caetano M et al (2012) Urban heritage endangerment at the interface of future cities and past heritage: A spatial vulnerability assessment. Habitat Int 36:287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2011.10.007
Deng JS, Wang K, Hong Y, Qi JG (2009) Spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to rapid urbanization. Landsc Urban Plan 92:187–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.05.001
Deng X, Huang J, Rozelle S et al (2015) Impact of urbanization on cultivated land changes in China. Land Use Policy 45:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.01.007
Doxa A, Albert CH, Leriche A, Saatkamp A (2017) Prioritizing conservation areas for coastal plant diversity under increasing urbanization. J Environ Manage 201:425–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.06.021
Drăguţ L, Csillik O, Eisank C, Tiede D (2014) Automated parameterisation for multi-scale image segmentation on multiple layers. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 88:119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2013.11.018
Duc TB (2009) Tourism Industry Responses to the Rise of Sustainable Tourism and Related Environmental Policy Initiatives: The Case of Hue City, Vietnam
El Menchawy A, Aly SS, Hakim MA (2011) The impact of urban sprawl on the heritage areas through the urban fabric of cities. New Forest, UK, pp 299–314
Elfadaly A, Attia W, Qelichi MM et al (2018) Management of Cultural Heritage Sites Using Remote Sensing Indices and Spatial Analysis Techniques. Surv Geophys 39:1347–1377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-018-9489-8
Esch T, Marconcini M, Marmanis D et al (2014) Dimensioning urbanization – An advanced procedure for characterizing human settlement properties and patterns using spatial network analysis. Appl Geogr 55:212–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.09.009
Fan P, Ouyang Z, Nguyen DD et al (2019) Urbanization, economic development, environmental and social changes in transitional economies: Vietnam after Doimoi. Landsc Urban Plan 187:145–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.10.014
Fichera CR, Modica G, Pollino M (2012) Land Cover classification and change-detection analysis using multi-temporal remote sensed imagery and landscape metrics. Eur J Remote Sens 45:1–18. https://doi.org/10.5721/EuJRS20124501
Fu B, Jones KB (eds) (2013) Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Environment and Culture. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht
Ghorbanzadeh O, Feizizadeh B, Blaschke T (2018) An interval matrix method used to optimize the decision matrix in AHP technique for land subsidence susceptibility mapping. Environ Earth Sci 77:584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7758-y
Giovanni Boccardi and William Logan (2006) Report on the Reactive Monitoring Mission to the Complex of Hue Monuments
Guetté A, Gaüzère P, Devictor V et al (2017) Measuring the synanthropy of species and communities to monitor the effects of urbanization on biodiversity. Ecol Indic 79:139–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.04.018
Haas J, Furberg D, Ban Y (2015) Satellite monitoring of urbanization and environmental impacts—A comparison of Stockholm and Shanghai. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinformation 38:138–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2014.12.008
Herold M, Liu X, Clarke KC (2003) Spatial metrics and image texture for mapping urban land use. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 69:991–1001
Horayangkura PV (2005) The Future of Cultural Heritage Conservation amid Urbanization in Asia: Constraints and Prospects 3:14
Horowitz AD, Lopez MF, Ross SM, Sparenberg JA (2016) CLIMATE CHANGE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE CONSERVATION A LITERATURE REVIEW. 26
Howard AJ, Knight D, Coulthard T et al (2016) Assessing riverine threats to heritage assets posed by future climate change through a geomorphological approach and predictive modelling in the Derwent Valley Mills WHS, UK. J Cult Herit 19:387–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2015.11.007
Huế Monument Conservation Center (2018) Complex of Huế Monuments [WWW Document]. UNECO
Huế Monuments Conservation Centre (2017) Geographic information system (GIS) Huế
ICOMOS (1993) WORLD HERITAGE LIST (Huế)
Ii BLT, Skole D, Sanderson S, et al (1995) Land-use and land-cover change. Science/Research plan.
Imhoff ML, Zhang P, Wolfe RE, Bounoua L (2010) Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sens Environ 114:504–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.10.008
Jacobson MZ, Nghiem SV, Sorichetta A (2018) Short-Term Impacts of the Mega-Urbanizations of New Delhi and Los Angeles between 2000 and 2009. J Geophys Res Atmospheres. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029310
Kim M-K, Kim S (2011) Quantitative estimates of warming by urbanization in South Korea over the past 55 years (1954–2008). Atmos Environ 45:5778–5783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.028
Kiruthiga K, Thirumaran K (2019) Effects of urbanization on historical heritage buildings in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu, India. Front Archit Res 8:94–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2018.09.002
Kong F, Nakagoshi N (2006) Spatial-temporal gradient analysis of urban green spaces in Jinan, China. Landsc Urban Plan 78:147–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.07.006
Kong F, Yin H, Nakagoshi N, James P (2012) Simulating urban growth processes incorporating a potential model with spatial metrics. Ecol Indic 20:82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.02.003
Lambin EF, Geist HJ, Lepers E (2003) Dynamics of Land-Use and Land-Cover Change in Tropical Regions. Annu Rev Environ Resour 28:205–241. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105459
Lamine S, Petropoulos GP, Singh SK et al (2018) Quantifying land use/land cover spatio-temporal landscape pattern dynamics from Hyperion using SVMs classifier and FRAGSTATS ®. Geocarto Int 33:862–878. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2017.1307460
Li J, Song C, Cao L et al (2011) Impacts of landscape structure on surface urban heat islands: A case study of Shanghai, China. Remote Sens Environ 115:3249–3263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.07.008
Liu Y, Huang X, Yang H, Zhong T (2014) Environmental effects of land-use/cover change caused by urbanization and policies in Southwest China Karst area – A case study of Guiyang. Habitat Int 44:339–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.07.009
Llausàs A, Nogué J (2012) Indicators of landscape fragmentation: The case for combining ecological indices and the perceptive approach. Ecol Indic 15:85–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.08.016
Lopez RD, Frohn RC (2018) Remote sensing for landscape ecology: monitoring, modeling, and assessment of ecosystems, Second edition. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton
Luck M, Wu J (2002) A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region, Arizona, USA. Landsc Ecol 17:327–339. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020512723753
Magidi J, Ahmed F (2018) Assessing urban sprawl using remote sensing and landscape metrics: A case study of City of Tshwane, South Africa (1984–2015). Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.07.003
Malinverni ES, Tassetti AN, Mancini A et al (2011) Hybrid object-based approach for land use/land cover mapping using high spatial resolution imagery. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 25:1025–1043. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2011.566569
Manh PV, Cu PV, Hai PN et al (2016) Conservation Management of the World Cultural Heritage Based on High Resolution Data of VNREDSat-1 Case of Hue, Central Vietnam. Mod Environ Sci Eng 2:561–570. https://doi.org/10.15341/mese(2333-2581)/08.02.2016/008
Martin O, Piatti G (2008) World Heritage and Buffer Zones Patrimoine mondial et zones tampons. 102
Masetti M, Nghiem SV, Sorichetta A et al (2015) Investigating urban changes and environmental impacts in Italy. Eos Earth Space Sci News 21:13–16
Matsui Y, Trang DTT, Thanh NP (2015) Estimation of Waste Generation and Recycling Potential from Traditional Market: A Case Study in Hue City. Vietnam J Environ Prot 06:308–320. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2015.64031
McGarigal K, Cushman SA (2002) The Gradient Concept of Landscape Structure: Or, Why are There so Many Patches. 44
McGarigal K, Marks BJ (1995) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. U.S, Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
McGarigal, K., S,A, Cushman., E, Ene. (2012) FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical and Continuous Maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available at the following web site: http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html
National Assembly of Vietnam (2009) Law amending and supplementing a number of articles of the cultural heritage law
Nghiem SV, Balk D, Rodriguez E et al (2009) Observations of urban and suburban environments with global satellite scatterometer data. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 64:367–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2009.01.004
Nguyen THH, Cheung C (2014) The classification of heritage tourists: a case of Hue City. Vietnam J Herit Tour 9:35–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2013.818677
Nguyen To L (2002) Urbanization Patterns and Urban Problems in Vietnam. J Korean Reg Dev Assoc 3:81–92
Nicu IC (2016) Cultural heritage assessment and vulnerability using Analytic Hierarchy Process and Geographic Information Systems (Valea Oii catchment, North-eastern Romania). An approach to historical maps. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 20:103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.10.015
Niu X, Ban Y (2013) Multi-temporal RADARSAT-2 polarimetric SAR data for urban land-cover classification using an object-based support vector machine and a rule-based approach. Int J Remote Sens 34:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2012.700133
Paolini A, Vafadari A, Cesaro G, et al (2012) Risk management at heritage sites: a case study of the Petra world heritage site
Peng J, Tian L, Liu Y et al (2017) Ecosystem services response to urbanization in metropolitan areas: Thresholds identification. Sci Total Environ 607–608:706–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.218
Pham V-M, Van Nghiem S, Bui Q-T et al (2019) Quantitative assessment of urbanization and impacts in the complex of Huế Monuments. Vietnam Appl Geogr 112:102096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2019.102096
Plexida SG, Sfougaris AI, Ispikoudis IP, Papanastasis VP (2014) Selecting landscape metrics as indicators of spatial heterogeneity—A comparison among Greek landscapes. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinformation 26:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2013.05.001
Ponziani D, Ferrero E, Appolonia L, Migliorini S (2012) Effects of temperature and humidity excursions and wind exposure on the arch of Augustus in Aosta. J Cult Herit 13:462–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2012.01.005
Qian Y, Zhou W, Yan J et al (2014) Comparing Machine Learning Classifiers for Object-Based Land Cover Classification Using Very High Resolution Imagery. Remote Sens 7:153–168. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70100153
Ravankhah M, de Wit R, Argyriou AV et al (2019) Integrated Assessment of Natural Hazards, Including Climate Change’s Influences, for Cultural Heritage Sites: The Case of the Historic Centre of Rethymno in Greece. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 10:343–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-019-00235-z
Samal DR, Gedam SS (2015) Monitoring land use changes associated with urbanization: An object based image analysis approach. Eur J Remote Sens 48:85–99. https://doi.org/10.5721/EuJRS20154806
Sesana E, Gagnon AS, Bonazza A, Hughes JJ (2019) An integrated approach for assessing the vulnerability of World Heritage Sites to climate change impacts. J Cult Herit. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2019.06.013
Seto KC, Fragkias M (2005) Quantifying Spatiotemporal Patterns of Urban Land-use Change in Four Cities of China with Time Series Landscape Metrics. Landsc Ecol 20:871–888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-005-5238-8
Shao Y, Lunetta RS (2012) Comparison of support vector machine, neural network, and CART algorithms for the land-cover classification using limited training data points. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 70:78–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2012.04.001
Shrestha MK, York AM, Boone CG, Zhang S (2012) Land fragmentation due to rapid urbanization in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area: Analyzing the spatiotemporal patterns and drivers. Appl Geogr 32:522–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.04.004
Singh P, Kikon N, Verma P (2017a) Impact of land use change and urbanization on urban heat island in Lucknow city, Central India. A remote sensing based estimate. Sustain Cities Soc 32:100–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.02.018
Singh SK, Srivastava PK, Szabó S et al (2017b) Landscape transform and spatial metrics for mapping spatiotemporal land cover dynamics using Earth Observation data-sets. Geocarto Int 32:113–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2015.1130084
Sorichetta A, Nghiem SV, Masetti M et al (2020) Transformative Urban Changes of Beijing in the Decade of the 2000s. Remote Sens 12:652. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12040652
Stevenazzi S, Bonfanti M, Masetti M et al (2017) A versatile method for groundwater vulnerability projections in future scenarios. J Environ Manage 187:365–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.10.057
Sun X, Tang H, Yang P et al (2020) Spatiotemporal patterns and drivers of ecosystem service supply and demand across the conterminous United States: A multiscale analysis. Sci Total Environ 703:135005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135005
Tam BY, Gough WA, Mohsin T (2015) The impact of urbanization and the urban heat island effect on day to day temperature variation. Urban Clim 12:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.12.004
Tan P-H, Chou C, Chou CC-K (2013) Impact of urbanization on the air pollution “holiday effect” in Taiwan. Atmos Environ 70:361–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.01.008
Tarragüel AA (2011) Developing an approach for analysing the possible impact of natural hazards on cultural heritage: a case study in the Upper Svaneti region of Georgia. 113
Tavernia BG, Reed JM (2009) Spatial extent and habitat context influence the nature and strength of relationships between urbanization measures. Landsc Urban Plan 92:47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.02.003
Taylor K (2016) The Historic Urban Landscape paradigm and cities as cultural landscapes. Challenging orthodoxy in urban conservation. Landsc Res 41:471–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2016.1156066
Thừa Thiên-Huế Provincial People's Committee (2013) The Modification of Hue City’s Masterplan 2030 and Vision 2050 (in Vietnamese)
Thừa Thiên-Huế Provincial People's Committee (2015) Management Plan of the Complex of Hue Monuments for the period 2015–2020, VISION 203
Tian J, Chen D-M (2007) Optimization in multi-scale segmentation of high-resolution satellite images for artificial feature recognition. Int J Remote Sens 28:4625–4644. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160701241746
Tran P, Shaw R (2007) Towards an integrated approach of disaster and environment management: A case study of Thua Thien Hue province, central Viet Nam. Environ Hazards 7:271–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envhaz.2007.03.001
Triantakonstantis D, Chrysoulakis N, Sazonova A et al (2015) On-line Εvaluation of Earth Observation Derived Indicators for Urban Planning and Management. Urban Plan Des Res 3:17. https://doi.org/10.14355/updr.2015.03.003
UNESCO (2008) Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
UNESCO (2019) The UNESCO Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape
UNESCO (Paris) (2010) Managing disaster risks for world heritage. United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO), Paris
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019) World urbanization prospects: the 2018 revision
Wang B, Tian L, Yao Z (2018) Institutional uncertainty, fragmented urbanization and spatial lock-in of the peri-urban area of China: A case of industrial land redevelopment in Panyu. Land Use Policy 72:241–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.12.054
Wang Z (2018) Evolving landscape-urbanization relationships in contemporary China. Landsc Urban Plan 171:30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.11.010
Weng Y-C (2007) Spatiotemporal changes of landscape pattern in response to urbanization. Landsc Urban Plan 81:341–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.01.009
Whitehand JWR, Gu K, Whitehand SM, Zhang J (2011) Urban morphology and conservation in China. Cities 28:171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2010.12.001
Wilson MC, Hu G, Jiang L et al (2020) Assessing habitat fragmentation’s hierarchical effects on species diversity at multiple scales: the case of Thousand Island Lake, China. Landsc Ecol 35:501–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00961-1
Wu J (2013) Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landsc Ecol 28:999–1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-013-9894-9
Wu J (2010) Landscape of culture and culture of landscape: does landscape ecology need culture? Landsc Ecol 25:1147–1150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-010-9524-8
Wu J, Jenerette GD, Buyantuyev A, Redman CL (2011) Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization: The case of the two fastest growing metropolitan regions in the United States. Ecol Complex 8:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2010.03.002
Wu J, Zhang Q, Li A, Liang C (2015) Historical landscape dynamics of Inner Mongolia: patterns, drivers, and impacts. Landsc Ecol 30:1579–1598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-015-0209-1
Xu Q, Dong Y, Yang R (2018) Urbanization impact on carbon emissions in the Pearl River Delta region: Kuznets curve relationships. J Clean Prod 180:514–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.194
Zhou W, Huang G, Troy A, Cadenasso ML (2009) Object-based land cover classification of shaded areas in high spatial resolution imagery of urban areas: A comparison study. Remote Sens Environ 113:1769–1777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.04.007
Acknowledgements
The research carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology, was supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Land-Cover and Land-Use Change (LCLUC) Program. We appreciate the coordination of the U.S. Department of State, the U.S. Embassy, the NASA Office of International and Interagency Relations (NASA OIIR), the NASA Headquarters (NASA HQ), the Vietnam National Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) Vietnam National Space Centre (VNSC), and especially together with the Rector’s Office of the Vietnam National University (VNU) Hanoi University of Science (HUS) for the science team meeting in Hanoi leading to and further strengthening the research collaboration between VNU-HUS and NASA JPL. We thank Edward Sewall, a JPL technical editor and native English speaker with a B.A. in English from the University of California at Los Angeles for his thorough efforts in proofreading this paper. In particular, the authors were fortunate to have the help of the Huế Monuments Conservation Centre in terms of documents and historical photographs.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pham, VM., Van Nghiem, S., Van Pham, C. et al. Urbanization impact on landscape patterns in cultural heritage preservation sites: a case study of the complex of Huế Monuments, Vietnam. Landscape Ecol 36, 1235–1260 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01189-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-01189-0