Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour
Parents’ perceptions of driver education: A theoretically guided qualitative investigation
Introduction
Young novice drivers who are 25 years or younger are over-represented in car crashes internationally (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2019) and in Australia (Bureau of Infrastructure Transport and Regional Economics, 2018). This ‘young driver problem’ has been recognised by researchers and policy makers for a substantial period of time (Goldstein, 1972). A range of influences contribute to why young novice drivers crash more than other driving groups (Shope & Bingham, 2008). Major Influences for young driver crashes include age, gender, and underdeveloped driving skills (Bates, Davey et al., 2014). However, contextual factors also play a role, particularly developmental, social and environmental factors (Cassarino & Murphy, 2018). Crashes involving young people place a high burden on society in terms of medical, rehabilitation and social reintegration costs (Buckis, Lenné, & Fitzharris, 2015). Along with professional driver education and training (Beanland, Goode, Salmon, & Lenné, 2013), many places in Australasia (Scott-Parker, 2016) and North America (Williams, 2017) have adopted Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) programs to better protect young drivers. Some GDL programs incorporate informal supervision of young drivers by a licensed driver, most commonly their parents (Bates et al., 2014, Groeger and Brady, 2004). This paper reports on an exploratory study of parents of young drivers.
It is difficult to succinctly define driver education and training. This is partly because a broad range of techniques and programs are described as driver education and training (Royal Automobile Club of Victoria, 2016) and partly because, while often conflated, driver education and driver training are qualitatively different (Beanland et al., 2013). Driver training refers to specific instruction about the operation of a vehicle, for example how and when to use a turning signal. Conversely, driver education is more broadly focused and includes topics like safe driving attitudes and life values (e.g., Kennedy, Cullen, Firman, Fleiter, & Lewis, 2018). Moreover, the distinction between driver training and driver education is often not understood by the general public who generally think that driver education and driver training are the same (McKenna, 2010). Some evaluation research suggests that young driver education and training, particularly when focused only on basic skill building, is not effective at reducing young driver crashes (Beanland et al., 2013, Royal Automobile Club of Victoria, 2016).
Technological tools have been introduced in many areas in an attempt to improve the effectiveness of safety interventions (Omaki et al., 2017). Driving simulators can be used as driver education and training tools for young novice drivers and incorporated into licensing systems (Bates, Filtness, & Watson, 2018), such as the Netherlands (SWOV, 2010). Some studies have demonstrated beneficial effects for both procedural and higher-order cognitive driving skills after using driving simulators (Vlakveld et al., 2011). Moreover, simulator training provided in combination with traditional methods has shown beneficial effects for young driver safety (Hirsch & Bellavance, 2017). However, some studies suggest that the potential benefit of driving simulators is complex in practice and requires further research. In one study, young people who were trained with simulators, as an adjunct to traditional methods, were found to have riskier post training attitudes towards safety compared to a control group trained as usual despite in vehicle data suggesting the simulator trained group drove more safely (Rosenbloom & Eldror, 2014). Due to these contradictory findings more research on the efficacy of using driving simulators is required (Martín-delosReyes et al., 2019). However, in a previous study (Rodwell et al., 2019) about the use of driving simulators in driver education, asking participants to draw a driving simulator for use in driver education resulted in a wide-ranging discussion that included suggestions about driver education in general. The authors of this paper commented that the ‘draw-and-talk’ process led to greater cognitive engagement from participants.
One holistic framework that seeks to systematise the diversity of influences on young drivers is the Goals for Driver Education (GDE; Berg, 2006). Underpinned by social cognitive theory of mental models (Keskinen, 2007), the GDE groups influences on young driver behaviour into four interconnected hierarchical levels (Hatakka, Keskinen, Gregersen, Glad, & Hernetkoski, 2002). The GDE levels are vehicle manoeuvring (Level 1), mastery of traffic situations (Level 2), goals and contexts of driving (Level 3), and goals for life and skills for living (Level 4). Each level can have a bidirectional influence on the other levels and is considered within broader aspects of the drivers’ knowledge and skills, personal susceptibility to risks, and level of self-awareness (Peraaho, Keskinen, & Hatakka, 2003).
Fig. 1 displays the GDE which has been adapted from Hatakka et al. (2002). In the figure, each level of the GDE is represented in the central column. The double-ended arrows represent the theoretical influence that each level can have on the other levels. For example, the arrows on the left indicate that GDE level 4 has influence on and is influenced by both GDE Level 2 and GDE level 1. The relationship between GDE level 4 and GDE level 3 is represented by the small arrow between these two boxes. Individual differences are also incorporated into the GDE which, in Fig. 1, are represented in the box on the right-hand side of the diagram and are shown to feed into each of the GDE levels. As can be seen the GDE is not a static model but one that has a high degree of dynamism which must be taken into account when developing and evaluating driver education.
Research suggests the GDE is not currently used as effectively as it could be in the design and operation of professional young driver education and training (Rodwell et al., 2018, Rodwell et al., 2019, Watson-Brown et al., 2018). Additionally, while developed within the paradigm of professional driver education, the GDE has the potential to inform and improve parental supervision, particularly within a GDL system. For example, research indicates parents are often confused about what skills should be prioritised and sequenced during supervised practice (Mirman & Kay, 2012). The GDE provides a logical framework to guide and educate parents of learner drivers, as well as professional instructors. However, a preliminary ‘train the trainer’ module may be required.
GDL is based on the principle that young people should develop and practice driving skills early in their driving career in conditions of lower risk (Foss, 2007). GDL programs divide the young novice driver period into stages with different specific conditions imposed upon the driver at each stage (Senserrick & Williams, 2015). For example, in Queensland, Australia, there is a four stage GDL program. This program consists of a learner stage where young drivers are supervised by an experienced driver over the age of 21 years; a highly restricted Provisional 1 (P1) stage that allows independent driving subject to additional conditions; a Provisional 2 (P2) stage where some of the P1 restrictions are relaxed; and a final open or unrestricted stage.
In short, GDL is a cohort-wide response to the ‘young driver problem’ rather than a targeted intervention for a specific young person (Bates et al., 2018). Evaluations suggest that GDL programs are effective at reducing young driver crashes (Williams, 2017). However, other research indicates that young driver compliance with GDL conditions is not always optimal (Goodwin, Wells, Foss, & Williams, 2006). In some cases young driver non-compliance occurs due to lack of knowledge of specific restrictions included in each stage (Truelove, Freeman, & Davey, 2019). In other cases, young drivers are complacent, or may intentionally ignore GDL conditions, especially as police enforcement of GDL conditions may be difficult or a low priority (Bates, Rodwell, & Matthews, 2019). As a result, monitoring driving behaviours and sanctioning breaches of GDL restrictions often falls to parents of young drivers (Brookland et al., 2014, Simons-Morton, 2007). However, while GDL systems provide an effective, staged approach to learning to drive independently, sanctions may be rarely enforced because parents have limited knowledge of GDL restrictions. For example, in one study from NZ, 54% of parents had limited knowledge of GDL conditions (Brookland et al., 2014).
GDL programs generally begin with a supervised learner stage before progressing to independent driving. While many young drivers receive some professional driver education during the learner stage, studies show that parents are usually the default primary driver supervisors (Bates et al., 2014, Jacobsohn et al., 2012). As discussed above, other research explains parents are not always aware of GDL conditions nor familiar with current driving rules and regulations (Brookland et al., 2014). Likewise, parent supervisors in jurisdictions with GDL programs do not always provide supervision and training across diverse driving contexts and conditions (Goodwin, Margolis, & Waller, 2010).
A limited number of studies have observed parents and children during the supervised practice period of the GDL systems (e.g., Goodwin, Foss, Margolis, & Harrel, 2014), and some studies have similarly investigated interpersonal factors that may impact the supervised driving period (Ehsani, Kar, Klauer, Dingus, & Simons-Morton, 2018). Only, a few studies (e.g., Mirman & Kay, 2012) have focused solely on parents’ perceptions, motivations and influences during this time. In many GDL jurisdictions parents are, if not explicitly, implicitly expected to provide driving instruction to their novice driver children. At the very least, parents hold much of the decision-making power in relation to the type of driver education or practice their child will receive. A number of interventions and programs for parents of young drivers have been developed, with mixed success in terms of efficacy (Curry, Peek-Asa, Hamann, & Mirman, 2015). As such, in many places, parents are a critical aspect of the driver licensing system for young drivers but their level of involvement, motivations for, and understanding of driver education are not well known.
The current study is part of a larger program of research investigating driver education and the use of technology, such as driving simulators, (Rodwell et al., 2018, Rodwell et al., 2019). The current study seeks to explore parent’s views on learning to drive and supervised driving practice in an exploratory, qualitative, holistic, and theoretically grounded manner. The dearth of previous research in this area invites the use of a qualitative method that allows an in-depth and flexible mode of investigation that can be used to provide a foundation of understanding to be built upon. The main aim of the study is to use the GDE framework to understand parents’ perceptions of the learning to drive process. Findings such as this may be useful for driving supervisors, driver education organisations and policy makers to develop interventions that support parent/supervisors and gain a nuanced perspective of how parents navigate GDL systems.
Section snippets
Context
The study was conducted in the Australian State of Queensland. At the time of the study, a four stage GDL system was in operation in Queensland which consisted of a fully supervised learner stage, followed by an intermediate provisional stage, which itself was divided into two sections which each had various restrictions (e.g., on carrying peer passengers at certain times), and a final open or unrestricted licence stage (Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2020b). Young people at
Results and discussion
The results and discussion of the main deductive analysis are presented first (GDE levels 1–4), followed by the secondary inductive (latent themes) analysis (GDL issues). Fig. 2 visualises key sentiments expressed by parents and how these relate to the GDE skills framework. In general, participants were worried about teaching their teenager vehicle operating skills (GDE 1) and how to manage traffic situations (GDE 2), often outsourcing the acquisition of these skills to private driving
General discussion
The learner stage is an important part of the GDL process with those who spend more time as a learner driver experiencing a lower crash risk once they begin solo driving (Gulliver, Begg, Brookland, Ameratunga, & Langley, 2013). While previous studies have considered the role of the GDE framework in driver education and training (Bates et al., 2019, Rodwell et al., 2018, Watson-Brown et al., 2018), this is the first study to apply this framework to the use of informal driver education for novice
Conclusion
Overall, this study has helped develop our understanding of how parents perceive the learning to drive process experienced by their children within the context of the GDE framework. The parents in the current study identified that they found supervising their child challenging at all four levels of the GDE framework. However, they appeared to be more likely to outsource parts of the supervision process at GDE levels 1 and 2 to professional driving instructors and driver educators in order to
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Roadcraft Driver Education, Ms Alana Hawkins and Mr Levi Anderson for their assistance with this study.
Funding statement
This research was supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council's Linkage Projects funding scheme (LP140100409).
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