Original articleSustainability of non-renewable resources: The case of marble in Macael (Spain)
Introduction
Countless studies have analyzed the impact that exploitation of renewable and non-renewable resources has on the development of a region, mainly because the depletion of a resource is quite frequently linked to serious social and personal consequences. Ever since the earliest works were published, the literature has insisted on the fundamental premise, in the case of renewable resources, that harvesting rate should not surpass resource recovery rate (Daly, 1991). As recovery is not possible in the case of non-renewables, the practice of quasi-sustainable consumption is encouraged, maintaining that the rate of creation of renewable substitutes compensates for the extraction rate (Bastianoni et al., 2009). This concept can be understood in the strict sense, which involves investing a portion of the profits generated by the non-renewable resource in renewable substitutes that fulfill the same needs as the material that is becoming increasingly more scarce, with the intention that the renewable material will be in conditions to generate an equal profit when the non-renewable has finished its life cycle, (El Serafy, 1989). On the other hand, the concept can be understood in the broader sense, whereby investments are made in any other initiative capable of guaranteeing the sustainability of an area's income (Daly, 1991; Basu and Pegg, 2020). Whichever the case, a factor of vital importance is the life cycle of the non-renewable resource, which depends on its reserves and the expected extraction rate.
Other works, such as those of Lafforgue (2008) and Le and Le Van (2017), propose models for studying the effects of natural resources on sustainable growth (specifically non-renewable resources) and well-being. Both approaches confirm the key role of research and innovation in this field. In addition, other valuable contributions analyze the ecological responsibility of companies that extract non-renewable resources (Harris, 2007), offering proposals to deduce the negative impacts on the environment caused by the activity from production value (Li et al., 2013). Other works study the importance of utilizing a forecasting methodology when initiating a new extraction project (Chopard et al., 2019), taking people into consideration above all (D'Angelo and Pijpers, 2018). Finally, some authors focus on the promotion of social and human development initiatives implemented in the extraction sector (Harvey, 2014).
Other publications focus attention on the exploitation of by-products (Abu Hanieh et al., 2014; Marras and Careddu, 2018; Ashish, 2019; Aydin and Arel, 2019; Bostanci, 2020). Some works propose what could be called the valuation approach, which considers by-products secondary resources rather than undesirable materials, in keeping with the circular economy and the principle of efficiency (Nzihou and Lifset, 2010; Bocken et al., 2016; Kirchherr et al., 2017). Utilizing waste—recovering and reutilizing materials already extracted—reduces the environmental impact generated and decreases the consumption of the raw material, thus extending the life cycle of the deposit (Careddu et al., 2013). Furthermore, such practices can help to improve the local economy by creating opportunities for business and employment (Godfrey et al., 2007). In order for waste to become an asset and generate profits, it is often necessary to create and apply innovative technologies.
In addition, and more directly related to the present study, numerous works focus on minimizing the environmental impact of the stone industry, and particularly marble, both in its extraction phase and processing (Careddu and Siotto, 2011; Furcas and Balletto, 2014). As highlighted by Taha and Benzaazoua (2020), many different types of waste are produced during the life cycle of a quarry (Fig. 1), and the decision of how to manage them depends on numerous factors. Many solutions tend to be specific to each location and are therefore difficult to apply in other cases. For example, a country's level of economic development may directly influence the scope of the actions necessary (Gitari et al., 2018; Elghali et al., 2019).
Despite appearing decades ago, the circular economy has gained momentum in recent years in the academic world and in political, economic and social spheres (Pearce and Turner, 1989). This economic model seeks to extend the time that materials and resources remain in the economy and reduce the generation of unusable waste to a minimum. Recently, several contributions have been published in this line, including works by Lacy and Rutqvist (2015) and Webster (2015), as well as those of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF, 2015).Similarly, a number of other studies have also addressed the topic of waste from mining activities (Tayebi-Khorami et al., 2019). As for government involvement, at the end of 2015 the European Commission published the EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy (EEA, 2016)—an ambitious program whose objective is to reduce the generation of waste to a minimum. Nevertheless, a great deal must be done to achieve this goal.
Breakthroughs in research must ultimately be translated into decisions and objectives which can then be disclosed to direct and indirect actors worldwide, at both macroeconomic and microeconomic levels. Every institution and company must establish actions and specify measures to fulfill the basic principles of sustainability: zero irreversibility, sustainable harvesting, sustainable emissions, sustainable selection of technology and precaution. Education and awareness campaigns are essential for society to realize that such efforts are necessary. However, these initiatives involve a challenge which, in many ways, is still far from being overcome.
Spain is one of the global leaders in the natural stone market. More specifically, it is the seventh world producer and the second producer in the European Union, following Italy (Spanish Ministry for Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge, 2018). Marble is the stone with the highest production in Spain, accounting for around 70% of dimension stone production. This sector is of great importance to producer regions, constituting an economic driver in provinces such as Almeria—an area that has become a leader in the marble sector, both nationally and internationally. Nearly half the marble extracted in Spain comes from Almeria, which is also one of the main regions in the processing of this mineral. Few studies in the literature have analyzed actual successful cases of regions with economies based on non-renewable endogenous resources (Careddu et al., 2017). These examples of success correspond to regions that have incorporated alternative economic activities, allowing them to diversify production and supply and extend the life of their local deposit—in short, they constitute economies that have made progress towards achieving sustainable development. The present study fills this gap in the literature by analyzing the evolution of the marble sector in this region and the measures taken to successfully improve environmental sustainability and protection. Thus, after presenting the historical factors that hindered the exploitation of this resource, this work analyzes the complete development plan carried out in the 1980s which was promoted by the public administration. Indeed, it was this initiative that allowed the general restructuring of the sector, transforming a group of companies into an industrial district (Aznar Sánchez et al., 2015), eventually giving rise to new activities that have helped to reduce environmental impact and significantly extend the deposit's life cycle. What is more, the study analyzes the specific case of one of the new companies that, by using alternative resources, has become the top multinationals in artificial composite products (Aznar Sánchez et al., 2017).
With this aim, the present work is structured as follows. The next section presents the evolution and current state of marble mining in Macael. The following section examines the case of the most successful company in the area, Cosentino—a worldwide leading multinational. Next, the discussion section presents the measures analyzed and the results obtained. Finally, the main conclusions are summarized, along with possible future research lines.
Section snippets
The case of marble in Macael
Most of the companies related to dimension stone in the province of Almeria (located in the southeast of Spain) are found in the area known as the “Marble District” (Comarca del Mármol), which includes five towns (Macael, Olula del Río, Fines, Cantoria and Purchena). Within said district, Macael is one of the main sites for marble mining and processing (Fig. 2).
The company Cosentino. A different paradigm
The sector of non-renewable resource extraction has been receiving increasing pressure to incorporate sustainability into its decision-making processes (Harris, 2007). The company Cosentino is an example of how several businesspeople with extensive knowledge about the product and market, and a special skills set, took advantage of the opportunities offered by the Global Action Plan of 1983 and made a commitment to achieving the most environmentally responsible operations possible. At the
Discussion
Many regions whose economies are based on non-renewable endogenous resources have entered an irreversible economic recession, resulting in diminished well-being and depopulation due to inadequate exploitation, resource depletion or competition from new substitute products. Some quintessential cases are those of numerous coal-mining towns and Riotinto (Spain), which is known for its copper mines. This area was unable to create alternative activities to sustain employment, apart from visits to
Conclusions
In order to ensure that towns whose economies are based on non-renewable endogenous resources maintain sustainable development over time, and that economic ruin and depopulation due to resource depletion is avoided, it is essential to conduct a rational and quasi-sustainable operation and seek out new alternatives that might achieve sustainable economic and social development. Investing a portion of the revenue generated by non-renewable resources in activities that produce substitutes for the
Funding
This work was partially supported by Spanish MCINN (project ECO2017-82347-P) and European Commission (NEFERTITI project No. 772705; LIFE ALCHEMIA project LIFE16 ENV/ES/000437). The authors are also grateful for the support received from CEMyRI and EMME project (AMIF/2017/AG/INTE/821726).
Declarations of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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