Abstract
A computerized linguistic measure, the Weighted Referential Activity Dictionary (WRAD), was applied to locate nodal turns of speech in psychotherapy, defined here as significant moments of patient emotional communication that are likely to reveal important themes. Two published demonstration sessions conducted by a senior clinician, who made extensive comments on this material, were utilized to illustrate the method. The WRAD, defined in the context of referential process theory, was developed and has been validated as assessing the vividness and immediacy of language. Segments of patient speech (turns of speech) were classified based on WRAD level and sufficient length. The themes of the therapist’s clinical comments concerning high WRAD segments were coded using a category system developed for this study, and were compared to themes of comments for the remaining segments. Results showed a significant difference in the therapist’s comments between the two groups of segments using Fisher’s exact test. In particular, the therapist’s comments on the nodal turns showed more focus on the emotional effects of the patient’s utterances on him, as well as identification of unexpected disclosures in these utterances. The implications and limitations of this method are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The sessions were part of the Systems of Psychotherapy, American Psychological Association Video Series, demonstrating Integrative Relational Psychotherapy.
Dr. Paul Wachtel, the author of the volume as cited above.
References
Berg, B. L. (2001). Qualitative research methods for social sciences (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Bøgwald, K. P., Høglend, P., & Sørbye, O. (1999). Measurement of transference interpretations. The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 8(4), 264–273.
Bucci, W. (2021). Development and validation of measures of referential activity. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09760-9.
Bucci, W. (1997). Psychoanalysis and cognitive science: A multiple code theory. New York: The Guilford Press.
Bucci, W. (2013). The referential process as a common factor across treatment modalities. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome, 16(1), 16–23. https://doi.org/10.7411/RP.2013.003.
Bucci, W., & Crisafulli, G. (2021). Linguistic measures of the therapeutic process in Carl Rogers’s case of Miss Vib. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09769-0
Bucci, W., & Kabasakalian-McKay, R. (1992). Scoring referential activity: Instructions for use with transcripts of spoken narrative texts. Ulmer Textbank.
Bucci, W., & Maskit, B. (2006). A weighted dictionary for referential activity. In J. G. Shanahan, Y. Qu, & J. Wiebe (Eds.), Computing attitude and affect in text (pp. 49–60). Berlin: Springer.
Bucci, W., & Maskit, B. (2007). Beneath the surface of the therapeutic interaction: The psychoanalytic method in modern dress. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 55(4), 1355–1397. https://doi.org/10.1177/000306510705500412.
Bucci, W., Maskit, B., & Hoffman, L. (2012). Objective measures of subjective experience: The use of therapist notes in process-outcome research. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 40(2), 303–340.
Elliot, R. (2010). Psychotherapy change process research: Realizing the promise. Psychotherapy Research, 20(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300903470743.
Eubanks, C. F., Muran, J. C., & Safran, J. D. (2015). Rupture resolution rating system (3RS): Manual [Unpublished manuscript]. Mount Sinai-Beth Israel Medical Center, New York.
Hilsenroth, M. J., Blagys, M. D., Ackerman, S. J., Bonge, D. R., & Blais, M. A. (2005). Measuring psychodynamic-interpersonal and cognitive-behavioral techniques: Development of the comparative psychotherapy process scale. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42(3), 340.
Horvath, A. O., & Greenberg, L. S. (1989). Development and validation of the working alliance inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36(2), 223.
Imel, Z., Pace, B., Soma, C., Tanana, M., Hirsch, T., Gibson, J., et al. (2019). Design feasibility of an automated, machine-learning based feedback system for motivational interviewing. Psychotherapy, 56(2), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000221.
Mariani, R., Maskit, B., Bucci, W., & De Coro, A. (2013). Linguistic measures of the referential process in psychodynamic treatment: The English and Italian versions. Psychotherapy Research, 23(4), 430–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2013.794399.
Martinez, V. R., Flemotomos, N., Ardulov, V., Somandepalli, K., Goldberg, S. B., Imel, Z. E., Atkins, D. C., & Narayanan, S. (2019). Identifying therapist and client personae for therapeutic alliance estimation. Proc. Interspeech 2019, 1901–1905. https://doi.org/10.21437/Interspeech.2019-2829
Maskit, B. (2021). Overview of computer measures of the referential process. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09761-8.
Mergenthaler, E., & Bucci, W. (1999). Linking verbal and non-verbal representations: Computer analysis of referential activity. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 72(3), 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711299160040.
Nan, H. M. (2019). Emotional disclosure in Chinese speakers: A psychotherapy analogue study (Publication No. 13807116) [Doctoral dissertation, Adelphi University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Nasir, M., Chakravarthula, S. N., Baucom, B. R., Atkins, D. C., Georgiou, P., & Narayanan, S. (2019). Modeling interpersonal linguistic coordination in conversations using word mover’s distance. Proc. Interspeech 2019, 1423-1427. https://doi.org/10.21437/Interspeech.2019-1900
Roussos, A., Etchebarne, I., & Waizmann, V. (2009). The interaction between psychoanalytic interpretations and referential activity (s-wrad): A single case study. Annual Investigation, 16, 95–102.
Wachtel, P. L. (2015). Inside the session: What really happens in psychotherapy. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, X., Bucci, W. Locating Nodal Moments Within Psychotherapy Sessions: A Mixed-Methods Study Using a Computerized Measure and Therapist Comments. J Psycholinguist Res 50, 223–230 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09772-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09772-5