The Eyes of Law Enforcement in the New Panopticon: Police-Community Racial Asymmetry and the Use of Surveillance Technology
Article Sidebar
Published:
Apr 1, 2018
Keywords:
racial asymmetry, surveillance technology, police-community relationship, law enforcement, panopticon
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study examines the relationship between police-community racial asymmetry and the use of surveillance technology by local law enforcement. The data come from a nationally representative survey of law enforcement agencies, with supplementary information provided by the Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics Survey, the Census, and the Uniform Crime Reports. Results indicate that police departments that underrepresent African Americans in the community are more likely to use or plan to implement surveillance technology, controlling for a range of agency-and contextual-level factors. One potential explanation for these findings is that surveillance technology operates as a form of social control that is differentially applied to racial minorities to manage what is perceived to be a greater proclivity toward criminal behavior. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Article Details
Section
Articles
Surveillance & Society uses a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.
- The author. The author licenses the article to the Surveillance Studies Network (SSN) for inclusion in Surveillance & Society (S&S), right of first publication. The copyright to the article remains with the author and any subsequent commercial reuse must be agreed by both parties.
- Non-commercial Users. SSN authorises all persons to use material published in S&S in any manner that is not primarily intended for or directed to commerical advantage or private monetary compensation, also provided that it is not modified and retains all attribution notices.
- Commercial Users. SSN retains the right to benefit from commerical reuse, in each specific case subject to the agreement of the author, and payment to SSN of a standard per-page fee (set by a vote of the Network and Editorial Board) by the Commercial User.
- Surveillance & Society supports open access archives and the free distribution of the results of academic work. Authors are encouraged to place copies of the final published version of their article in their university and / or other open access archives. We only ask that you make sure to include a link to the original published version on the Surveillance & Society website.
References
American Civil Liberties Union. 2016. What’s Wrong with Public Video Surveillance? Accessed May 23, 2017. https://www.aclu.org/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance.
American Civil Liberties Union. 2018. Stingray Tracking Devices: Who’s Got Them? Accessed February 19, 2018.
https://www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/stingray-tracking-devices-whos-got-them.
Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner
City. New York: W. W. Norton.
Barlow, Melissa H. 1998. Race and the Problem of Crime in Time and Newsweek Cover Stories,
1946 to 1995. Social Justice 25(2):149-183. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Race+and+the+problem+of+crime+in+'Time'+and+'Newsweek'+cover+stories%2c...- a021206128.
Barrick, Kelle, Matthew J. Hickman, and Kevin J. Strom. 2014. Representative Policing and
Violence Towards the Police. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 8(2):193-204. doi:10.1093/police/pau013.
Blau, Peter M. 1964. Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: Wiley.
Bobo, Lawrence. 1988. Attitudes Toward the Black Political Movement: Trends, Meaning,
and Effects on Racial Policy Preferences. Social Psychology Quarterly 51(4): 287-302. doi:10.2307/2786757.
Brewer, M. B. 1981. Ethnocentrism and Its Role in Interpersonal Trust. In Scientific Inquiry and the Social Sciences, eds M. B. Brewer and B. E. Collins, 345-360. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Brewer, M. B., and R. J. Brown. 1998. Intergroup Relations. In The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 2, eds D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, 554-594. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brignall, Tom. 2002. The New Panopticon: The Internet Viewed as a Structure of Social Control. Theory and Science 3: 335-48. doi:10.1.1.103.5894.
Byrne, James, and Gary Marx. 2011. Technological Innovations in Crime Prevention and Policing. A Review of the Research on Implementation and Impact. Journal of Police Studies 20(3): 17-40. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/238011.pdf.
Caplan, Joel M., Leslie W. Kennedy, and Gohar Petrossian. 2011. Police-Monitored CCTV Cameras in Newark, NJ: A Quasi-Experimental Test of Crime Deterrence. Journal of Experimental Criminology 7(3): 255-274. doi:10.1007/s11292-011-9125-9.
Chamard, Sharon. 2003. The Adoption and Discontinuance of Computerized Crime Mapping by Municipal Police Departments in New Jersey. PhD diss., University of Michigan.
Chamard, Sharon. 2006. The History of Crime Mapping and Its Use by American Police Departments. Alaska Justice Forum 23(3): 4-8. https://www.uaa.alaska.edu/academics/college-of-health/departments/justice-center/alaska-justice forum/23/3fall2006/a_crimemapping.cshtml.
Chiricos, Ted, Kelly Welch, and Marc Gertz. 2004. The Racial Typification of Crime and Support for Punitive Measures. Criminology 42(2): 358-390. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00523.x.
Coleman, James S. 1988. Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): 95-120. http://courseweb.ischool.illinois.edu/~katewill/for china/readings/coleman%201988%20social%20capital.pdf.
Cox, Taylor. 1993. Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Damanpour, Fariborz. 1991. Organizational Innovation: A Meta-Analysis of Effects of Determinants and Moderators. Academy of Management Journal 34(3): 555-590. http://www.jstor.org/stable/256406.
Dasgupta, Partha. 1988. Trust as Commodity. In Trust: Making and Breaking Relationships, ed D. Gambetta, 49-73. Oxford, UK: Basic Blackwell.
Davis, Michael. 1990. City of Quartz. London: Vintage Press.
Donellon, Anne. 1996. Team Talk: The Power of Language in Team Dynamics. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Dovidio, John F., and Samuel L. Gaertner. 1999. Reducing Prejudice: Combating Intergroup Biases. Current Directions in Psychological Science 8(4): 101-5. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8721.00024.
Drummond, William J. 1990. About Face: From Alliance to Alienation. Blacks and the News Media. American Enterprise 1(4): 23-29. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ414473.
Ericson, Richard V., and Kevin D. Haggarty. 1997. Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Fiske, John. 1998. Surveilling the City: Whiteness, the Black Man and Democratic Totalitarianism. Theory, Culture and Society 15(2): 67-88. doi:10.1177/026327698015002003.
Fiske, Susan T., and Janet B. Ruscher. 1993. Negative Interdependence and Prejudice: Whence the Affect? In Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception, eds D. M. Mackie and D. L. Hamilton, 239-269. New York: Academic Press.
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Pantheon.
Foucault, Michel. 1978. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction. New York: Random House.
Fox, Alan C. 1974. Beyond Contract: Power and Trust Relations. London: Faber & Faber.
Fyfe, Nicholas R., and Jon Bannister. 1996. City Watching: Closed Circuit Television Surveillance in Public Spaces. Area 28 (1): 37-46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20003625.
Gaertner, Samuel L., Mary C. Rust, John F. Dovidio, Betty A. Bachman, and P. A. Anastasio. 1996. The Contact Hypothesis: The Role of Common Ingroup Identity on Reducing Intergroup Bias Among Majority and Minority Members. In What’s Social about Social Cognition? eds J. L. Nye and A. M. Brower, 230-260. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Gambetta, Diego. 1988. Can we Trust? In Trust: Making and Breaking of Cooperative Relations, ed D. Gambetta, 213-238. New York: Blackwell.
Goold, Benjamin. 2004. CCTV and Policing: Public Area Surveillance and Police Practices in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hardin, Russell. 2003. The Street-Level Epistemology of Trust. Politics & Society 21(4): 505-29. doi:10.1177/0032329293021004006.
Harr, Robin N., and Merry Morash. 1999. Gender, Race, and Strategies of Coping with Occupational Stress in Policing. Justice Quarterly 16(2): 303-336. doi:10.1080/07418829900094151.
Hawkins, Darnell F. 1995. “Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: A Review of Selected Studies. In Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives across Time and Place, ed D. F. Hawkins, 11-45. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Holmes, Malcolm D., Brad W. Smith, Adrienne B. Freng, and E. A. Munoz. 2008. Minority Threat, Crime Control, and Police Resource Allocation in the Southwestern United States. Crime and Delinquency 54(1): 128-52. doi:10.1177/0011128707309718.
Hurwitz, Jon, and M. Peffley. 1997. Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes. American Journal of Political Science 41(2): 375-401. doi:10.2307/2111769.
Kanter, Rosabeth M. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Kappeler, Victor E., Richard D. Sluder, and Geoffrey P. Alpert. 1998. Forces of Deviance: Understanding the Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Kavanagh, Nate. 2006. 2006, But Has 1984 Finally Arrived? Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2006/09/351051.html.
Kelly, John, and Caroline Kelly. 1991. “Them and Us” Social Psychology and the “New Industrial Relations.” British Journal of Industrial Relations 29(1): 25-48. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8543.1991.tb00226.x.
Kennedy, Randall. 1997. Race, Crime and the Law. New York: Vintage.
Kent, Stephanie L., and D. Jacobs. 2004. Social Divisions and Coercive Control in Advanced Societies: Law Enforcement Strength in Eleven Nations from 1975 to 1994. Social Problems 51(3): 343–61. doi:10.1525/sp.2004.51.3.343.
King, William R. 1998. Innovativeness in American Municipal Police Organizations. PhD diss., University of Cincinnati.
Koper, Christopher S., Bruce G. Taylor, and B. E. Kubu. 2009. Law Enforcement Technology Needs Assessment: Future Technologies to Address the Operational Needs of Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: The Police Executive Research Forum. http://www.policeforum.org/assets/docs/Free_Online_Documents/Technology/law%20enforcement%20technology%20 needs%20assessment%202009.pdf.
Kornhauser, Ruth R. 1978. Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic Models. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Koskela, Hille. 2003. “Cam Era” The Contemporary Urban Panopticon. Surveillance and Society 1(3): 292-313. http://mysite.du.edu/~lmehran/download/camera.pdf.
Kramer, Roderick M. 1994. The Sinister Attribution Error: Paranoid Cognition and Collective Distrust in Organizations. Motivation and Emotion 18(2): 199-227. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02249399.
Kramer, Roderick M., and David M. Messick. 1998. Getting by with a Little Help from Our Enemies: Collective Paranoia and its Role in Intergroup Relations. In Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior, ed C. Sedikides, 233-255. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lewicki, Roy J., and Barbara B. Bunker. 1996. Developing and Maintaining Trust in Working Relationships. In Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, ed R. M. Kramer and T. R. Tyler, 114-139. London: Sage.
Little, Roderick J., and D. B. Rubin. 2002. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Lum, Cynthia, Linda Merola, Julie Willis, and B. Cave. 2010. License Plate Recognition Technology (LPR) Impact Evaluation and Community Assessment. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Press.
Lyon, David. 2003. Surveillance as Social Sorting. New York: Routledge.
Lyon, David. 2007. Surveillance Studies: An Overview. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
Macauley, Stewart. 1963. Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study. American Sociological Review 28 (1): 55-67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2090458.
Mamalian, Cynthia A., Nancy G. LaVigne, and the Staff of the Crime Mapping Research Center. 1999. The Use of Computerized Crime Mapping by Law Enforcement: Survey Results. Research Preview. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/fs000237.pdf.
Marx, Gary T. 1988. Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Mastrofski, Stephen D., Roger B. Parks, and D. B. Wilson. 2003. Influences on the Adoption of Community Policing in the United States. Report to the National Institute of Justice. Manassas, VA: George Mason University Press.
Mauer, Marc. 1999. Race to Incarcerate. New York: New Press.
McCahill, Michael. 1998. Beyond Foucault: Towards a Contemporary Theory of Surveillance” In Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control, eds Norris, Clive, J. Moran and Gary Armstrong, 41-65. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
McLean, Sarah J., Robert E. Worden, and M. Kim. 2013. Here’s Looking at You: An Evaluation of Public CCTV Cameras and their Effects on Crime and Disorder. Criminal Justice Review 38(3): 303-334. doi:10.1177/0734016813492415.
McMullan, Thomas. 2015. What Does the Panopticon Mean in the Age of Digital Surveillance? The Guardian. July 23. Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jul/23/panopticon-digital-surveillance-jeremy-bentham.
Norris, Clive. 2003. From Personal to Digital: CCTV, the Panopticon, and the Technological Mediation of Suspicion and Social Control. In Surveillance as Social Sorting, ed David Lyon, 249-281. New York: Routledge.
Olsen, Marvin E. 1972. Social Participation and Voting Turnout: A Multivariate Analysis. American Sociological Review 37 (June): 317-33. doi:10.2307/2093471.
Powell, Walter W. 1990. Neither Market nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization. In Research in Organization Behavior, vol. 12, eds B. M. Straw and L. L. Cummings, 295-336. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Randol, Blake M. 2012. The Organizational Correlates of Terrorism Response Preparedness in Local Police Agencies. Criminal Justice Policy Review 23 (3): 304-26. doi:10.1177/0887403411400729.
Reese, Hope. 2015. Police Are Now Using Drones to Apprehend Suspects and Administer Non-Lethal Force: A Police Chief Weighs In. Tech Republic. Accessed February 19, 2018. https://www.techrepublic.com/article/police-are-now-using-drones-to-apprehend-suspects-and-administer-non-lethal-force-a-police-chief/.
Reeve, Alan. 1998. The Panopticisation of Shopping: CCTV and Leisure Consumption. In Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television, and Social Control, eds Norris, Clive, Jade Moran, and Gary Armstrong, 69-87. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Roberts, David J. and M. Casanova. 2012. Automated License Plate Recognition Systems: Policy and Operational Guidance for Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.aclu.org/files/FilesPDFs/ALPR/federal/NHTSA/15948-16075DOJ-IACP%20report.pdf.
Rogers, Everett M. 1962. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.
Russell, Katheryn K. 2002. The Racial Hoax as Crime: The Law as Affirmation. In African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice, eds S. L. Gabbidon, H. T. Greene, and V. D. Young, 349-376. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sampson, Robert J., and Dawn J. Bartusch. 1998. Legal Cynicism and (Subcultural?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences. Law and Society 32 (4): 777-804. doi:10.2307/827739.
Sampson, Robert. J., and W. Byron Groves. 1989. Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory. American Journal of Sociology 94 (4): 774-802. doi: 10.1086/229068.
Schuck, Amie M. 2015. Prevalence and Predictors of Surveillance Cameras in Law Enforcement: The Importance of Stakeholders and Community Factors. Criminal Justice Policy Review 28 (1): 41-60. doi:1177/0887403415570631.
Shingles, Richard D. 1981. “Black Consciousness and Political Participation: The Missing Link. The American Political Science Review 75 (1): 76-90. doi:10.2307/1962160.
Sigelman, Lee, and Steven A. Tuch. 1996. Metastereotypes: Blacks’ Perceptions of Whites’ Stereotypes of Blacks. Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1): 87-101. doi:10.1086/297788.
Simon, Bart. 2005. The Return of Panopticism: Supervision, Subjection, and the New Surveillance. Surveillance & Society 3(1): 1-20. .
Sitkin, Sim B., and Darryl Stickel. 1996. The Road to Hell: The Dynamics of Distrust in an Era of Quality. In Trust and Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, eds R. M. Kramer and T. R. Tyler, 196-215. London: Sage.
Skogan, Wesley G., and S. M. Hartnett. 2005. The Diffusion of Information Technology in Policing. Police Practice and Research 6 (5): 401-17. doi:10.1080/15614260500432949.
Skolnick, Jerome H., and James J. Fyfe. 1993. Above the Law. New York: The Free Press.
Sniderman, P., and T. Piazza. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Staples. William. 1997. The Culture of Surveillance. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Strom, Kevin J., Josh. A. Hendrix, Travis A. Taniguchi, Brian Aagaard, Sarah R. Werth, and Steven Legacy. 2016. Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st Century: Final Report. Washington, D. C.: The National Institute of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251140.pdf.
Stucky, Thomas D. 2005. Local Politics and Police Strength. Justice Quarterly 22(2): 139-169.
doi: 10.1080/07418820500088739.
Tjosvold, Dean. 1988. Cooperative and Competitive Interdependence: Collaboration between Departments to Serve Customers. Group & Organization Studies 13 (3): 274-289. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/105960118801300303.
Uslaner, Eric M. 2002. The Moral Foundations of Trust. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Walker, Samuel, and Charles M. Katz. 2002. The Police in America. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Weisburd, David, and Cynthia Lum. 2005. The Diffusion of Computerized Crime Mapping in Policing: Linking Research and Practice. Police Practice and Research 6 (5): 419-34. doi:10.1080/15614260500433004.
Weisburd, David, and Peter Neyroud. 2011. Police Science: Toward a New Paradigm. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Welch, Kelly. 2007. Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 23 (3): 276-88. doi:10.1177/1043986207306870.
Welsh, Brandon C., and David P. Farrington. 2009. Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Justice Quarterly 26 (4): 716-745. doi:10.1080/07418820802506206.
Williams, Michele. 2001. In Whom We Trust: Group Membership as an Affective Context for Trust Development. Academy of Management Review 26 (3): 377-396. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271807722_In_Whom_We_Trust_Group_Membership_as_an_Affective_Con text_for_Trust_Development.
Wilson Huang, W.S., and Michael S. Vaughn. 1996. Support and Confidence: Public Attitudes toward the Police. In Americans View Crime and Justice: A National Public Opinion Survey, eds T. J. Flanagan and D. R. Longmire, 31-45. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Woody, Robert H. 2005. The Police Culture: Research Implications for Psychological Services. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 36 (5): 525-529. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.525.
Yamagishi, Toshio, and Midori Yamagishi. 1994. Trust and Commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion 18 (2): 129-66. doi:10.1007/BF02249397.
Zucker, Lynne. G. 1986. Production of Trust: Institutional Sources of Economic Structure, 1840-1920. In Research in Organizational Behavior, eds B. M. Straw and L. L. Cummings, 53-111. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
American Civil Liberties Union. 2018. Stingray Tracking Devices: Who’s Got Them? Accessed February 19, 2018.
https://www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/stingray-tracking-devices-whos-got-them.
Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner
City. New York: W. W. Norton.
Barlow, Melissa H. 1998. Race and the Problem of Crime in Time and Newsweek Cover Stories,
1946 to 1995. Social Justice 25(2):149-183. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Race+and+the+problem+of+crime+in+'Time'+and+'Newsweek'+cover+stories%2c...- a021206128.
Barrick, Kelle, Matthew J. Hickman, and Kevin J. Strom. 2014. Representative Policing and
Violence Towards the Police. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 8(2):193-204. doi:10.1093/police/pau013.
Blau, Peter M. 1964. Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: Wiley.
Bobo, Lawrence. 1988. Attitudes Toward the Black Political Movement: Trends, Meaning,
and Effects on Racial Policy Preferences. Social Psychology Quarterly 51(4): 287-302. doi:10.2307/2786757.
Brewer, M. B. 1981. Ethnocentrism and Its Role in Interpersonal Trust. In Scientific Inquiry and the Social Sciences, eds M. B. Brewer and B. E. Collins, 345-360. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Brewer, M. B., and R. J. Brown. 1998. Intergroup Relations. In The Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 2, eds D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, 554-594. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brignall, Tom. 2002. The New Panopticon: The Internet Viewed as a Structure of Social Control. Theory and Science 3: 335-48. doi:10.1.1.103.5894.
Byrne, James, and Gary Marx. 2011. Technological Innovations in Crime Prevention and Policing. A Review of the Research on Implementation and Impact. Journal of Police Studies 20(3): 17-40. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/238011.pdf.
Caplan, Joel M., Leslie W. Kennedy, and Gohar Petrossian. 2011. Police-Monitored CCTV Cameras in Newark, NJ: A Quasi-Experimental Test of Crime Deterrence. Journal of Experimental Criminology 7(3): 255-274. doi:10.1007/s11292-011-9125-9.
Chamard, Sharon. 2003. The Adoption and Discontinuance of Computerized Crime Mapping by Municipal Police Departments in New Jersey. PhD diss., University of Michigan.
Chamard, Sharon. 2006. The History of Crime Mapping and Its Use by American Police Departments. Alaska Justice Forum 23(3): 4-8. https://www.uaa.alaska.edu/academics/college-of-health/departments/justice-center/alaska-justice forum/23/3fall2006/a_crimemapping.cshtml.
Chiricos, Ted, Kelly Welch, and Marc Gertz. 2004. The Racial Typification of Crime and Support for Punitive Measures. Criminology 42(2): 358-390. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00523.x.
Coleman, James S. 1988. Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): 95-120. http://courseweb.ischool.illinois.edu/~katewill/for china/readings/coleman%201988%20social%20capital.pdf.
Cox, Taylor. 1993. Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Damanpour, Fariborz. 1991. Organizational Innovation: A Meta-Analysis of Effects of Determinants and Moderators. Academy of Management Journal 34(3): 555-590. http://www.jstor.org/stable/256406.
Dasgupta, Partha. 1988. Trust as Commodity. In Trust: Making and Breaking Relationships, ed D. Gambetta, 49-73. Oxford, UK: Basic Blackwell.
Davis, Michael. 1990. City of Quartz. London: Vintage Press.
Donellon, Anne. 1996. Team Talk: The Power of Language in Team Dynamics. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Dovidio, John F., and Samuel L. Gaertner. 1999. Reducing Prejudice: Combating Intergroup Biases. Current Directions in Psychological Science 8(4): 101-5. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8721.00024.
Drummond, William J. 1990. About Face: From Alliance to Alienation. Blacks and the News Media. American Enterprise 1(4): 23-29. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ414473.
Ericson, Richard V., and Kevin D. Haggarty. 1997. Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Fiske, John. 1998. Surveilling the City: Whiteness, the Black Man and Democratic Totalitarianism. Theory, Culture and Society 15(2): 67-88. doi:10.1177/026327698015002003.
Fiske, Susan T., and Janet B. Ruscher. 1993. Negative Interdependence and Prejudice: Whence the Affect? In Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception, eds D. M. Mackie and D. L. Hamilton, 239-269. New York: Academic Press.
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Pantheon.
Foucault, Michel. 1978. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction. New York: Random House.
Fox, Alan C. 1974. Beyond Contract: Power and Trust Relations. London: Faber & Faber.
Fyfe, Nicholas R., and Jon Bannister. 1996. City Watching: Closed Circuit Television Surveillance in Public Spaces. Area 28 (1): 37-46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20003625.
Gaertner, Samuel L., Mary C. Rust, John F. Dovidio, Betty A. Bachman, and P. A. Anastasio. 1996. The Contact Hypothesis: The Role of Common Ingroup Identity on Reducing Intergroup Bias Among Majority and Minority Members. In What’s Social about Social Cognition? eds J. L. Nye and A. M. Brower, 230-260. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Gambetta, Diego. 1988. Can we Trust? In Trust: Making and Breaking of Cooperative Relations, ed D. Gambetta, 213-238. New York: Blackwell.
Goold, Benjamin. 2004. CCTV and Policing: Public Area Surveillance and Police Practices in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hardin, Russell. 2003. The Street-Level Epistemology of Trust. Politics & Society 21(4): 505-29. doi:10.1177/0032329293021004006.
Harr, Robin N., and Merry Morash. 1999. Gender, Race, and Strategies of Coping with Occupational Stress in Policing. Justice Quarterly 16(2): 303-336. doi:10.1080/07418829900094151.
Hawkins, Darnell F. 1995. “Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: A Review of Selected Studies. In Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives across Time and Place, ed D. F. Hawkins, 11-45. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Holmes, Malcolm D., Brad W. Smith, Adrienne B. Freng, and E. A. Munoz. 2008. Minority Threat, Crime Control, and Police Resource Allocation in the Southwestern United States. Crime and Delinquency 54(1): 128-52. doi:10.1177/0011128707309718.
Hurwitz, Jon, and M. Peffley. 1997. Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes. American Journal of Political Science 41(2): 375-401. doi:10.2307/2111769.
Kanter, Rosabeth M. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Kappeler, Victor E., Richard D. Sluder, and Geoffrey P. Alpert. 1998. Forces of Deviance: Understanding the Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Kavanagh, Nate. 2006. 2006, But Has 1984 Finally Arrived? Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2006/09/351051.html.
Kelly, John, and Caroline Kelly. 1991. “Them and Us” Social Psychology and the “New Industrial Relations.” British Journal of Industrial Relations 29(1): 25-48. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8543.1991.tb00226.x.
Kennedy, Randall. 1997. Race, Crime and the Law. New York: Vintage.
Kent, Stephanie L., and D. Jacobs. 2004. Social Divisions and Coercive Control in Advanced Societies: Law Enforcement Strength in Eleven Nations from 1975 to 1994. Social Problems 51(3): 343–61. doi:10.1525/sp.2004.51.3.343.
King, William R. 1998. Innovativeness in American Municipal Police Organizations. PhD diss., University of Cincinnati.
Koper, Christopher S., Bruce G. Taylor, and B. E. Kubu. 2009. Law Enforcement Technology Needs Assessment: Future Technologies to Address the Operational Needs of Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: The Police Executive Research Forum. http://www.policeforum.org/assets/docs/Free_Online_Documents/Technology/law%20enforcement%20technology%20 needs%20assessment%202009.pdf.
Kornhauser, Ruth R. 1978. Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic Models. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Koskela, Hille. 2003. “Cam Era” The Contemporary Urban Panopticon. Surveillance and Society 1(3): 292-313. http://mysite.du.edu/~lmehran/download/camera.pdf.
Kramer, Roderick M. 1994. The Sinister Attribution Error: Paranoid Cognition and Collective Distrust in Organizations. Motivation and Emotion 18(2): 199-227. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02249399.
Kramer, Roderick M., and David M. Messick. 1998. Getting by with a Little Help from Our Enemies: Collective Paranoia and its Role in Intergroup Relations. In Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior, ed C. Sedikides, 233-255. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lewicki, Roy J., and Barbara B. Bunker. 1996. Developing and Maintaining Trust in Working Relationships. In Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, ed R. M. Kramer and T. R. Tyler, 114-139. London: Sage.
Little, Roderick J., and D. B. Rubin. 2002. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Lum, Cynthia, Linda Merola, Julie Willis, and B. Cave. 2010. License Plate Recognition Technology (LPR) Impact Evaluation and Community Assessment. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Press.
Lyon, David. 2003. Surveillance as Social Sorting. New York: Routledge.
Lyon, David. 2007. Surveillance Studies: An Overview. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
Macauley, Stewart. 1963. Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study. American Sociological Review 28 (1): 55-67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2090458.
Mamalian, Cynthia A., Nancy G. LaVigne, and the Staff of the Crime Mapping Research Center. 1999. The Use of Computerized Crime Mapping by Law Enforcement: Survey Results. Research Preview. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/fs000237.pdf.
Marx, Gary T. 1988. Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Mastrofski, Stephen D., Roger B. Parks, and D. B. Wilson. 2003. Influences on the Adoption of Community Policing in the United States. Report to the National Institute of Justice. Manassas, VA: George Mason University Press.
Mauer, Marc. 1999. Race to Incarcerate. New York: New Press.
McCahill, Michael. 1998. Beyond Foucault: Towards a Contemporary Theory of Surveillance” In Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control, eds Norris, Clive, J. Moran and Gary Armstrong, 41-65. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
McLean, Sarah J., Robert E. Worden, and M. Kim. 2013. Here’s Looking at You: An Evaluation of Public CCTV Cameras and their Effects on Crime and Disorder. Criminal Justice Review 38(3): 303-334. doi:10.1177/0734016813492415.
McMullan, Thomas. 2015. What Does the Panopticon Mean in the Age of Digital Surveillance? The Guardian. July 23. Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jul/23/panopticon-digital-surveillance-jeremy-bentham.
Norris, Clive. 2003. From Personal to Digital: CCTV, the Panopticon, and the Technological Mediation of Suspicion and Social Control. In Surveillance as Social Sorting, ed David Lyon, 249-281. New York: Routledge.
Olsen, Marvin E. 1972. Social Participation and Voting Turnout: A Multivariate Analysis. American Sociological Review 37 (June): 317-33. doi:10.2307/2093471.
Powell, Walter W. 1990. Neither Market nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization. In Research in Organization Behavior, vol. 12, eds B. M. Straw and L. L. Cummings, 295-336. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Randol, Blake M. 2012. The Organizational Correlates of Terrorism Response Preparedness in Local Police Agencies. Criminal Justice Policy Review 23 (3): 304-26. doi:10.1177/0887403411400729.
Reese, Hope. 2015. Police Are Now Using Drones to Apprehend Suspects and Administer Non-Lethal Force: A Police Chief Weighs In. Tech Republic. Accessed February 19, 2018. https://www.techrepublic.com/article/police-are-now-using-drones-to-apprehend-suspects-and-administer-non-lethal-force-a-police-chief/.
Reeve, Alan. 1998. The Panopticisation of Shopping: CCTV and Leisure Consumption. In Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television, and Social Control, eds Norris, Clive, Jade Moran, and Gary Armstrong, 69-87. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Roberts, David J. and M. Casanova. 2012. Automated License Plate Recognition Systems: Policy and Operational Guidance for Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.aclu.org/files/FilesPDFs/ALPR/federal/NHTSA/15948-16075DOJ-IACP%20report.pdf.
Rogers, Everett M. 1962. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.
Russell, Katheryn K. 2002. The Racial Hoax as Crime: The Law as Affirmation. In African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice, eds S. L. Gabbidon, H. T. Greene, and V. D. Young, 349-376. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sampson, Robert J., and Dawn J. Bartusch. 1998. Legal Cynicism and (Subcultural?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences. Law and Society 32 (4): 777-804. doi:10.2307/827739.
Sampson, Robert. J., and W. Byron Groves. 1989. Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory. American Journal of Sociology 94 (4): 774-802. doi: 10.1086/229068.
Schuck, Amie M. 2015. Prevalence and Predictors of Surveillance Cameras in Law Enforcement: The Importance of Stakeholders and Community Factors. Criminal Justice Policy Review 28 (1): 41-60. doi:1177/0887403415570631.
Shingles, Richard D. 1981. “Black Consciousness and Political Participation: The Missing Link. The American Political Science Review 75 (1): 76-90. doi:10.2307/1962160.
Sigelman, Lee, and Steven A. Tuch. 1996. Metastereotypes: Blacks’ Perceptions of Whites’ Stereotypes of Blacks. Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1): 87-101. doi:10.1086/297788.
Simon, Bart. 2005. The Return of Panopticism: Supervision, Subjection, and the New Surveillance. Surveillance & Society 3(1): 1-20. .
Sitkin, Sim B., and Darryl Stickel. 1996. The Road to Hell: The Dynamics of Distrust in an Era of Quality. In Trust and Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, eds R. M. Kramer and T. R. Tyler, 196-215. London: Sage.
Skogan, Wesley G., and S. M. Hartnett. 2005. The Diffusion of Information Technology in Policing. Police Practice and Research 6 (5): 401-17. doi:10.1080/15614260500432949.
Skolnick, Jerome H., and James J. Fyfe. 1993. Above the Law. New York: The Free Press.
Sniderman, P., and T. Piazza. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Staples. William. 1997. The Culture of Surveillance. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Strom, Kevin J., Josh. A. Hendrix, Travis A. Taniguchi, Brian Aagaard, Sarah R. Werth, and Steven Legacy. 2016. Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategy in the 21st Century: Final Report. Washington, D. C.: The National Institute of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251140.pdf.
Stucky, Thomas D. 2005. Local Politics and Police Strength. Justice Quarterly 22(2): 139-169.
doi: 10.1080/07418820500088739.
Tjosvold, Dean. 1988. Cooperative and Competitive Interdependence: Collaboration between Departments to Serve Customers. Group & Organization Studies 13 (3): 274-289. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/105960118801300303.
Uslaner, Eric M. 2002. The Moral Foundations of Trust. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Walker, Samuel, and Charles M. Katz. 2002. The Police in America. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Weisburd, David, and Cynthia Lum. 2005. The Diffusion of Computerized Crime Mapping in Policing: Linking Research and Practice. Police Practice and Research 6 (5): 419-34. doi:10.1080/15614260500433004.
Weisburd, David, and Peter Neyroud. 2011. Police Science: Toward a New Paradigm. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Welch, Kelly. 2007. Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 23 (3): 276-88. doi:10.1177/1043986207306870.
Welsh, Brandon C., and David P. Farrington. 2009. Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Justice Quarterly 26 (4): 716-745. doi:10.1080/07418820802506206.
Williams, Michele. 2001. In Whom We Trust: Group Membership as an Affective Context for Trust Development. Academy of Management Review 26 (3): 377-396. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271807722_In_Whom_We_Trust_Group_Membership_as_an_Affective_Con text_for_Trust_Development.
Wilson Huang, W.S., and Michael S. Vaughn. 1996. Support and Confidence: Public Attitudes toward the Police. In Americans View Crime and Justice: A National Public Opinion Survey, eds T. J. Flanagan and D. R. Longmire, 31-45. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Woody, Robert H. 2005. The Police Culture: Research Implications for Psychological Services. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 36 (5): 525-529. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.525.
Yamagishi, Toshio, and Midori Yamagishi. 1994. Trust and Commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion 18 (2): 129-66. doi:10.1007/BF02249397.
Zucker, Lynne. G. 1986. Production of Trust: Institutional Sources of Economic Structure, 1840-1920. In Research in Organizational Behavior, eds B. M. Straw and L. L. Cummings, 53-111. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.