What makes the traditional forest-related knowledge deteriorate? A case of Dengcen village in Southwestern China

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2021.102419Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Continuing deterioration of TFK in an ethnic community in Southwestern China was illustrated by using a quantitative approach

  • Age, gender, experience with urban lifestyle, and formal education level of an individual can explain TFK retention

  • Formal education and urban expansion were found to be the main drivers of accelerating the deterioration of TFK

Abstract

Traditional forest-related knowledge (TFK) is under the risk of disappearance in many parts of the world, even though it can be an important source of knowledge for sustainable development. This study aims to assess the status of TFK retention and further identify the factors contributing to the erosion of TFK. A case of Dengcen, an ethnic village located in the Guizhou province of Southwest China was investigated. The degree of TFK retained by the village inhabitants of different generations was measured using a quantitative approach, with a vitality index of traditional environmental knowledge (VITEK). We found that age, gender, experience with urban life, and formal education level of an individual were influential factors that explained TFK retention in rural societies in China. In particular, formal education and urban expansion were found to be the main drivers of accelerating the deterioration of traditional forest-related knowledge. These findings have implications regarding sustainable forest management for policy makers that formal and informal education systems should be integrated in order to ensure traditional forest knowledge of local communities to contribute to sustainable development.

Introduction

Forests have been inseparably linked to people's livelihoods through the provision of diverse ecosystem services in the form of support, vital resources, regulations, and cultural services (MEA, 2005). Forests are more than just a geographical area; from an anthropological point of view, forests can be abstract, transformed in the human psyche and regarded through imagery, or incorporated into religious beliefs (Chun, 2015). Forests are significantly connected to the well-being of humans; likewise, human activities affect forest ecosystems through their management practices and extraction of resources (Liu et al., 2013). However, unprecedented global deforestation and forest degradation over the last five decades continue at an alarming pace and have resulted in a series of environmental crises that undermine human well-being (Parrotta et al., 2016). Several authors have questioned whether modern forest science, technology, and resource management practices are up to the challenge of sustainably maintaining forest environments (Parrotta et al., 2016).

Traditional forest-related knowledge (TFK) shares the same conceptual framework with traditional environmental/ecological knowledge (TEK) and may guide us towards more sustainable forest management practices. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) report identified TEK as relevant in addressing the current unsustainable utilization of ecosystem services (MEA, 2005). The UN Forum on Forests (UNFF) defines TFK as “… a cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and belief, handed down through generations by cultural transmission and evolving by adaptive processes, about the relationship between living beings with one another and with their forest environment” (Berkes et al., 2000). Parrotta and Agnoletti (2007) argued that TFK contributes significantly to global natural and cultural heritage and helps to sustain the production of multiple goods and services that enhance livelihood security and quality of life. Despite the inextricable relationship between TFK and livelihood, biocultural diversity, and human well-being, TFK is deteriorating at a rapid rate in many parts of the world. Although the negative impacts of TFK erosion have been studied by scientists in the field, the implications of such loss remain poorly understood (Parrotta et al., 2009). According to Farooquee et al. (2004), traditional knowledge systems in the Indian Himalayan societies have allowed for the conservation of a number of regional plant and animal resources. Loss of traditional knowledge in a region goes beyond the loss of knowledge on plant and animal resources, but could also have impacts on the traditional arrangements of resource sharing, cohesiveness of the society, social concern over their natural ecosystems, and social, cultural, and religious affinities. For instance, the muyong system, an indigenous knowledge system for natural resource management practiced by the Ifugao people of the Philippines, is threatened by a number of issues that could undermine sustainable forest management (Camacho et al., 2016). The TFK of the Dayak Tunjung communities of Indonesia is also rapidly disappearing. The decline in the practice of traditional shifting cultivation is believed to cause the loss of Dayak culture and identity (Siahaya et al., 2016).

There are various causes of TFK disappearance in Asia. According to Youn et al. (2011), TFK is vulnerable to rapid social transformation and interventions for economic development from outside. Globalization of economy and direct government interventions in local governance are the main causes of changes in knowledge systems, even in remote rural communities (Liu et al., 2012). For instance, the practice of traditional knowledge has become more vulnerable due to the government's interventions in natural resource management by rural villages in Guizhou province, China (Yuan et al., 2012).

As confirmed by the UN Forum on Forests, TFK is passed down through generations by cultural transmission, a process through which a given culture's knowledge traits, behavior patterns, ideas, practices, values, and beliefs are communicated and transcended by generations (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman, 1981; Cohen, 2010; Athayde et al., 2017). This process is embedded in social structures such as age and gender, institutions like community and school, and place (Athayde et al., 2017). Because of the multi-faceted nature of transmission, TFK is composed of different elements retained by different groups of society, according to factors such as age, gender, occupation, economic status, level of formal schooling, and place of residence (Zent, 2013). There have been few studies on the factors affecting the loss of TEK. Formal schooling was identified to be associated with the erosion of indigenous ecological knowledge, such as ethnobotany and traditional weaving (Zent and López-Zent, 2004; Athayde et al., 2017). Transmission of traditional knowledge was reported to differ according to gender, due to the difference in social role based on gender (Boster, 1986; Howard, 2003; Ohmagari and Berkes, 1997). The age, gender, education, and occupation of people are claimed to influence their willingness and ability to learn and make use of traditional ecological knowledge in Southwest China (Yuan et al., 2014). However, the claim was not proved with evidences that were statistically significant. Previous studies on the loss of traditional knowledge related to forestry are yet to be corroborated with detailed factual information, such as the composition of TFK being eroded. A more detailed inquiry into what can result in the retention of TFK is warranted.

This study assessed the current status of TFK retained by a rural community in Southwest China. The differences in the level of TFK among generations were analyzed to determine whether the rate of change in retained TFK differs between young and old generations, and by gender. We also attempted to understand the other factors could make the rate of TFK retained different between individuals. We tested factors including age, gender, formal education, and experience with the urban life of the person. Age was chosen as a factor influencing a person's level of TFK, considering that a person's knowledge evolves over time with his or her experiences during the modern time of societal change, as observed in China. Most rural communities in Southwest China have been practicing agriculture and forestry in their livelihood and have been experiencing rapid socio-economic changes under the influence of urbanization and more interactions with the outside world over the past half century. In China, there were two socioeconomic development turning points: the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, and the Chinese Economic Reform since the end of the 1970s. The traditional knowledge of these rural communities, including traditional land-use practices, is now under a risk of disappearance.

We formulated four hypotheses with a focus on the factors of TFK erosion in this study. The first hypothesis was that the TFK in the rural community of Southwest China has eroded over the years. Secondly, the rate of TFK erosion differs between genders. Thirdly, the rate of TFK erosion differs between individuals with or without experience of urban life. Finally, the exposure to formal education limits the learning and practice of TFK in rural Southwest China. The results of this study may provide further information for understanding the reasons why TKF becomes vulnerable in rural areas of the world.

Section snippets

Study site

Southwest China is one of the most densely diverse regions in China, with almost 0.2 billion people residing on 2.5 million km2 of land. Guizhou province (38°18′40″N–36°33′09″N and 127°32′56″E–129°22′07″E) is a cradle of human civilization, where evidence of Paleolithic civilization has been found. Dengcen village is located in the southeast of Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture in Guizhou (Fig. 1, Fig. 2).

Dengcen is a local community of Dong people, also known as “gaeml” in their

Intergenerational rate of TFK retention

Declines were observed between the old, middle, and young generations in the IRR of the total test score, the CK component, and the PS component (Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5). For the total score (Fig. 3), the IRR of the middle-aged group (G1) was approximately 90.0% (92.4% for males and 89.7% for females) of that retained by the old age group (G0). Villagers from the young age group (G2) retained 72.5% (females) to 79.0% (males) compared to G1 respondents. The decline in TFK retention was sharper

Discussion

The IRR results show that TFK is continuously disappearing through its intergenerational transmission. The noticeable gaps between the young generation and the two older generations imply that the TFK has been eroding over time, which is in accordance with the results of some studies on the retention of traditional ethnobotanical or ecological knowledge (Zent, 2001; Zent and Maffi, 2009; Yuan et al., 2014). Compared to the conceptual knowledge, practical skills have been lost among the young

Conclusion

This study illustrates the erosion of TFK in an ethnic community assessed using a quantitative approach with the Dengcen Village as an example. The study reveals that age, gender, experience with urban life, and formal education level are associated with TFK retention or erosion. Rapid social changes and increasing interactions with the outside world have together led to significant changes in the traditional lifestyle and loss of interest in traditional knowledge, particularly among youths.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-for-profit sectors.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks go to the villagers from Dengcen Village for their great support and help during the field surveys in Dengcen. We are greateful to Guizhou University of Finance and Economics, and Renmin University of China for support of the fieldwork. We extended our thanks to two anonymous reviewers for their help of proof reading.

References (36)

  • J.A. Parrotta et al.

    Traditional forest knowledge: challenges and opportunities

    For. Ecol. Manag.

    (2007)
  • J.A. Parrotta et al.

    Traditional forest-related knowledge and sustainable forest management in Asia

    For. Ecol. Manag.

    (2009)
  • S. Athayde et al.

    The same, but different: indigenous knowledge retention, erosion, and innovation in the Brazilian Amazon

    Hum. Ecol.

    (2017)
  • F. Berkes et al.

    Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management

    Ecol. Appl.

    (2000)
  • J.S. Boster

    Exchange of varieties and information between aguaruna manioc cultivators

    Am. Anthropol.

    (1986)
  • L.D. Camacho et al.

    Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in cordillera, Philippines

    Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag.

    (2016)
  • L.L. Cavalli-Sforza et al.

    Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach

    (1981)
  • Chinese Traditional Villages Catalog
  • K.S. Chun

    Environmental Anthropology

    (2015)
  • E. Cohen

    Anthropology of knowledge

    J. R. Anthropol.

    (2010)
  • O.J. Dunn

    Multiple comparisons using rank sums

    Technometrics

    (1964)
  • N.A. Farooquee et al.

    Indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable management of natural resources in a high altitude society in Kumaun Himalaya, India

    J. Hum. Ecol.

    (2004)
  • V. Goossaert et al.

    The Religious Question in Modern China

    (2011)
  • P.L. Howard

    Women and Plants. Gender Relations in Biodiversity Management and Conservation

    (2003)
  • J. Koster et al.

    Wisdom of the elders? Ethnobiological knowledge across the lifespan

    Curr. Anthropol.

    (2016)
  • L.J. Li

    On changes of Chinese social custom between 1949 and 1956

    Teach. Res.

    (2001)
  • J.L. Liu

    Traditional knowledge in the eyes of development anthropology and its implication to development practices

    J. China’s Agric. Univ.

    (2007)
  • J. Liu et al.

    Traditional forest knowledge of the Yi people confronting policy reform and social changes in Yunnan province of China

    Forest Policy Econ.

    (2012)
  • Cited by (0)

    View full text