Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Effects of High Intensity versus Low Intensity Exercise on Academic Productivity, Mood, and Behavior among Youth with and without ADHD

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Preliminary evidence suggests exercise enhances mental health and cognitive performance among typically developing children and children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The goal of this study was to determine whether improvements vary depending on exercise intensity (e.g., high vs. low) or outcome domains (e.g., mood, behavior, academic productivity), and whether effects vary over time. Participants were 130 children (73% in ADHD group) aged 6 to 13 who completed daily exercise (high or low intensity) across 15 days as well as daily measures of pre- and post-activity mood, behavior and academic productivity. Results indicated no differences in the effectiveness of low- versus high- intensity exercise for youth with and without ADHD on overall mood, behavior, or academic productivity. Moreover, although there were no differences in academic productivity over time among children with and without ADHD in the low or high intensity exercise conditions, there were differences in behavior and mood over time among children with and without ADHD in the high, but not low, intensity condition. Specifically, relative to children without ADHD, children with ADHD had a wider range of behavior problems immediately after high intensity exercise and showed worse initial moods and more negative change over time in mood. Findings suggest that high intensity exercise delivered in certain formats can be associated with worse mood and behavior over time among youth with ADHD. Future research is needed to draw firmer conclusions about the relative short- and long-term effectiveness of high and low intensity exercise for youth with and without ADHD.

Highlights

  • Exercise is thought to have benefits for youth with ADHD but to date its effects, especially at various intensities, remain unknown.

  • There were no differences in effectiveness of low- versus high- intensity exercise for youth with and without ADHD on mood, behavior, or academic productivity.

  • Children with ADHD had more behavior problems and worse moods over time following high- but not low-intensity exercise.

  • High intensity exercise delivered in certain formats may be linked with worse mood and behavior for youth with ADHD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed, G., & Mohamed, S. (2011). Effect of regular aerobic exercise on behavioral, cognitive and psychological response in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Life Science Journal, 8(2), 366–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth edition: DSM-5. Washington: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Annesi, J. (2005). Correlations of depression and total mood disturbance with physical activity and self-concept in preadolescents enrolled in an after-school exercise program. Psychological Reports, 96(3), 891–898.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Messer, S. C., Pickles, A., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). The development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, L. E., Hurt, E., & Lofthouse, N. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: dietary and nutritional treatments. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 22, 381–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlett, A. Litwin, B. & Rosenthal, R. (2010) “A home-based exercise program augmented by a self-management home health monitor for individuals with type 2 non-insulin dependent diabetes”. Department of Health Sciences Faculty Proceedings, Presentations, Posters, Speeches, Lectures, etc…218. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/hpd_hs_facpres/218

  • Barner, J. C., Khoza, S., & Oladapo, A. (2011). ADHD medication use, adherence, persistence and cost among Texas Medicaid children. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 27(2), 13–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berwid, O. G., & Halperin, J. M. (2012). Emerging support for a role of exercise in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder intervention planning. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(5), 543–551.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1215–1220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkman, W. B., Simon, J. O., & Epstein, J. N. (2018). Reasons why children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder stop and restart taking medicine. Academic Pediatrics, 18(3), 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bunford, N., Evans, S. W., & Wymbs, F. (2015). ADHD and emotion dysregulation among children and adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 18(3), 185–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bunford, N., Evans, S. W., & Langberg, J. (2018). Emotion dysregulation is associated with social impairment among young adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(1), 66–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burd, K. A., Margherio, S. K., & Wymbs, F. A. (2018). The effects of high intensity exercise and yoga on children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Poster presented at the 52nd Annual Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT), Washington, D.C.

  • Bustamante, E. E., Davis, C. L., Frazier, S. L., Rusch, D., Fodd, L. F., Atkins, M. S., & Marquez, D. X. (2016). Randomized controlled trial of exercise for ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders. Medicine Science Sports Exercise, 48(7), 1397–1407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100, 126.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Castelli, C., Hillman, C., Buck, S., & Erwin, H. (2007). Physical fitness and academic achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29, 239–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalá-Lopez, F., Hutton, B., Núñez-Beltrán, A., Page, M. J., Ridao, M., Macías Saint-Gerons, D., & Moher, D. (2017). The pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review with network meta-analyses of randomized trials. PLoS ONE, 12(7), e0180355.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chacko, A., Kofler, M., & Jarret, M. (2014). Improving outcomes for youth with ADHD: A conceptual framework for combined neurocognitive and skill-based treatment approaches. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17, 368–384.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y., Liu, S., Yu, H., & Lee, Y. (2012). Effect of acute exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 225–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y., Tsai, Y., Chen, T., & Hung, T. (2013). The impacts of coordinative exercise on executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study. Experimental Brain Research, 225(2), 187–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y., & Etnier, J. (2015). Acute exercise and cognitive function: emerging research issues. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 1(4), 1–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, J., Han, D., Kang, K., Jung, H., & Renshaw, P. F. (2015). Aerobic exercise and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Brain research. Medicine Science Sports Exercise, 47(1), 33–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chimiklis, A. L., Dahl, V., Spears, A. P., Goss, K., Fogarty, K., & Chacko, A. (2018). Yoga, mindfulness, and meditation interventions for youth with ADHD: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(10), 3155–3168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishman, R. K., Berthoud, H., Booth, F. W., Cotman, C. W., Edgerton, V. R., Fleshner, M. R., & Zigmond, M. J. (2006). Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity, 14(3), 345–356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elbe, A., Wikman, J. M., Zheng, M., Larsen, M. N., Nielsen, G., & Krustrup, P. (2016). The importance of cohesion and enjoyment for the fitness improvement of 8 10-year-old children participating in a team and individual sport school-based physical activity intervention. Psychology, Social Sciences and Humanities, 17(3), 343–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, S. W., Owens, J. S., Wymbs, B. T., & Ray, R. (2018). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 157–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E., Waschbusch, D. A., Gnagy, E. M., Lahey, B. B., Chronis, A. M., & Burrows-MacLean, L. (2006). A practical measure of impairment: psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35(3), 369–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabiano, G. A., Schatz, N. K., & Pelham, W. E. Jr. (2014). Summer treatment programs for youth with ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23(4), 757–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.012.

  • Flohr, J. A., Saunders, M. J., Evans, S. W., & Raggi, V. (2004). Effects of physical activity on academic performance and behavior in children with ADHD. Medicine Science Sports Exercise, 36, S145–S146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gapin, J., & Etnier, J. L. (2010). The relationship between physical activity and executive function in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(6), 753–763.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldfield, G., Mallory, R., Parker, T., Cunningham, T., Legg, C., Lumb, A., & Adamo, K. (2007). Effects of modifying physical activity and sedentary behavior on psychosocial adjustment in overweight/obese children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(7), 783–793.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grassmann, V., Alves, M. V., Santos-Galduróz, R. F., & Galduróz, J. C. F. (2017). Possible cognitive benefits of acute physical exercise in children with ADHD: a systematic review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(5), 367–371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haranto, T. A., Krafft, C. E., Iosif, A. M., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2015). A trial-by-trial analysis reveals more intense physical activity is associated with better cognitive control performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 22(5), 618–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Smith, A. L., Shoulberg, E. K., Linnea, K. S., Dorsch, T. E., Blazo, J. A., & McCabe, G. P. (2014). A randomized trial examining the effects of aerobic physical activity on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(4), 655–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, R. (2019). ADHD and exercise. https://childmind.org.

  • Jensen, P. S., Garcia, J. S., Glied, M., Crowe, M., Foster, M., Schlander, M., & Hinshaw, S. (2005). Cost-effectiveness of ADHD treatments: findings from the MTA study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(9), 1628–16236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koda, K., Ago, Y., Cong, Y., Kita, Y., Takuma, K., & Matsuda, T. (2010). Effects of acute and chronic administration of atomoxetine and methylphenidate on extracellular levels of noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin in the prefrontal cortex and striatum of mice. Journal of Neurochemistry, 114, 259–270.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, Q. (2008). Beneficial effects of moderate voluntary physical exercise and its biological mechanisms on brain health. Neuroscience Bulletin, 24(4), 265–270.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Medina, J. A., Netto, T. L., Muszkat, M., Medina, A. C., Botter, D., Orbetelli, R., & Miranda, M. C. (2010). Exercise impact on sustained attention of ADHD children, methylphenidate effects. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 2, 49–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., Arnold, E., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P. S., & Houck, P. R. (2009). The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(5), 484–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meeusen, R., & De Meirleir, K. (1995). Exercise and brain neurotransmission. Sports Medicine, 20(3), 160–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide. Sixth edn Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus User’s Guide. Seventh edn. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, M. R., O’Sullivan, M. P., Block, S. S., Tooley, T. R., Robinson, L. E., Colabianchi, N., & Hasson, R. E. (2017). Affective responses to intermittent physical activity in healthy weight and overweight/obese elementary school-age children. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 14(11), 845–851.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ng, Q., Ho, C., Chan, H., Yong, B., & Yeo, W. (2017). Managing childhood and adolescent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with exercise: a systematic review. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 34, 123–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, R., Carroll, D., & Cochrane, R. (1992). The effects of physical activity and exercise training on psychological stress and well-being in an adolescent population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36(1), 55–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Fabiano, G., & Massetti, G. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of ADHD in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 449–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-3-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(2), 210–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., & Greiner, A. R. (1992). Summer Treatment Program Manual. Buffalo, NY: Comprehensive Treatment for Attention Deficit Disorders, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R. (2005). The neuropsychopharmacology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1385–1390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., Sugaya, L. S., Caye, A., & Rohde, L. A. (2015). Annual research review: a meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(3), 345–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Pediatrics, 162, 543–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhew, I., Simpson, K., Tracy, M., Lymp, J., McCauley, E., Tsuang, D., & Vander Stoep, A. (2010). Criterion validity of the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire and one- and two-item depression screens in young adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 4(8), 4–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. L., Hoza, B., Linnea, K., McQuade, J. D., Tomb, M., Vaughn, A. J., & Hook, H. (2013). Pilot physical activity intervention reduces severity of ADHD symptoms in young children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17(1), 70–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, W. B., Malina, R. M., Blimkie, C. J., Daniels, S. R., Dishman, R. K., Gutin, B., & Trudeau, F. (2005). Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics, 146(6), 732–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamminga, H. G. H., Reneman, L., Huizenga, H. M., & Geurts, H. M. (2016). Effects of methylphenidate on executive functioning in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan: a meta-regression analysis. Psychological Medicine, 46, 1791–1807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tantillo, M., Kesick, C. M., Hynd, G. W., & Dishman, R. K. (2002). The effects of exercise on children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 34(2), 203–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thabrew, H., Stasiak, K., Bavin, L. M., Frampton, C., & Merry, S. (2018). Validation of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) and Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ) in New Zealand help-seeking adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 27(3), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2018). Physical guidelines for Americans. 2nd edn. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verret, C., Guay, M. C., Berthiaume, C., Gardiner, P., & Béliveau, L. (2010). A physical activity program improves behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD: an exploratory study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16(1), 71–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waschbusch, D. A., Cunningham, C. E., Pelham, W. E., Rimas, H. L., Greiner, A. R., Gnagy, E. M., & Hoffman, M. T. (2011). A discrete choice conjoint experiment to evaluate parent preferences for treatment of young, medication naïve children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 546–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigal, S. B., Nemet, D., Swanson, J. M., Regino, R., Trampush, J., Ziegler, M. G., & Cooper, D. M. (2003). Catecholamine response to exercise in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatric Research, 53, 756–761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, B., Breitenstein, C., Mooren, F. C., Voelker, K., Fobker, M., Krueger, K., & Knecht, S. (2007). High impact running improves learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 87(4), 597–609.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA

    Frances A. Wymbs, Brian Wymbs & Samantha Margherio

  2. Department of Primary Care, Ohio University, 347 Grosvenor Hall, Athens, OH, 45701, USA

    Frances A. Wymbs

  3. Department of Psychiatry, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA

    Kayla Burd

Authors
  1. Frances A. Wymbs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brian Wymbs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Samantha Margherio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kayla Burd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Frances A. Wymbs.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board (IRB #15-F-22) at Ohio University and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wymbs, F.A., Wymbs, B., Margherio, S. et al. The Effects of High Intensity versus Low Intensity Exercise on Academic Productivity, Mood, and Behavior among Youth with and without ADHD. J Child Fam Stud 30, 460–473 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01880-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01880-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation