Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T13:17:29.964Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Towards a Multilingual Literary History: Lessons from a conflict environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 June 2019

ANNEMARI DE SILVA*
Affiliation:
International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Sri Lanka; Postgraduate Institute of English, Open University, Sri Lanka Email: annemarides@gmail.com

Abstract

This article presents methodologies towards a multilingual literary history of Sri Lanka in the twentieth century by examining multilingual encounters or cultures through places, people, and institutions. Massey's concept of plural space underpins the study and gives rise to various strategies to build a multilingual literary history. The guiding research questions are: How do we construct multilingual literary histories in the context of language-based conflict? What can conflict environments teach us about approaches to multilingual literary histories and spheres? In addition to discovering future directions for intra-national comparative literary studies and documenting multilingual cultures and sites, I also focus on the changing geography of multilingualism in the twentieth century. As ideological separation of language spheres turned to real-world segregation through a series of policy shifts and institutional changes, we see that the pursuit of multilingual research takes us from organic, or naturally occurring, sites of multilingualism to orchestrated, or purposefully created, sites. Orchestrated sites work to counterbalance the decreasing opportunity for organic multilingual encounters in the context of ethnolinguistic conflict.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I am thankful to the United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office and participating institutions for supporting this study in the form of a Chevening Scholarship, administered in 2015–16. The opinions expressed here, however, are my own and do not reflect the views of The Chevening Secretariat or the UK-FCO.

References

1 Godakumbura, C. E., Literature of Sri Lanka, rev. 3rd print, The Culture of Sri Lanka (Dept. of Cultural Affairs, Sri Lanka, 1976)Google Scholar; Godakumbura, C. E., Sinhalese Literature, by C. E. Godakumbura, … (Colombo Apothecaries’ Co., 1955)Google Scholar; Meegaskumbure, P. B., ‘Sinhala Language and Literature since Independence’, in Sri Lanka's Development since Independence: Socio-economic Perspectives and Analyses, ed. Lakshman, W. D. and Tisdell, Clement Allan (Nova Publishers, 2000), pp. 259–74Google Scholar; Obeyesekere, Ranjini, Sinhala Writing and the New Critics (M. D. Gunasena, 1974)Google Scholar.

2 K. Kailasapathy, ‘Tamil Consciousness in Eelam’ (1979), http://tamilnation.co/heritage/kailasapathy.htm (accessed 29 May 2019); M. A. Nuhman, ‘Ethnic Conflict and Literary Perception: Tamil Poetry in Post-colonial Sri Lanka’, Colombo Telegraph, 19 August 2012, https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/ethnic-conflict-and-literary-perception-tamil-poetry-in-post-colonial-sri-lanka/ (accessed 29 May 2019); S. Thillainathan, ‘Tamil Creative Writing in Sri Lanka: Post-independence Trends’, in Sri Lanka's Development since Independence, pp. 275–92.

3 Ashley Halpe, ‘Sri Lankan Literature in English’, in Sri Lanka's Development since Independence, pp. 259–74.

4 Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A., Sri Lankan English Literature and the Sri Lankan People, 1917–2003 / by D.C.R.A. Goonetilleke (Vijitha Yapa Publications, 2005)Google Scholar.

5 Massey, Doreen, For Space (SAGE Publications, 2005)Google Scholar.

6 Orsini, Francesca, ‘How to Do Multilingual Literary History? Lessons from Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-century North India’, Indian Economic & Social History Review 49, no. 2 (1 June 2012): pp. 226–7, doi: 10.1177/001946461204900203CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Levy, Lital, ‘Reorienting Hebrew Literary History: The View from the East’, Prooftexts 29, no. 2 (Spring 2009): pp. 127–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Laachir, Karima, ‘The Aesthetics and Politics of “Reading Together” Moroccan Novels in Arabic and French’, The Journal of North African Studies 21, no. 1 (January 2016): pp. 2236CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Orsini, Francesca, ‘The Multilingual Local in World Literature’, Comparative Literature 67, no. 4 (1 December 2015): pp. 345–74, doi: 10.1215/00104124-3327481CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Condé in Clark, Vèvè, ‘Maryse Condé: An Interview and A Short Story’, Callaloo 88 (1988)Google Scholar.

11 Orsini, ‘How to Do Multilingual Literary History?’, pp. 225–46; Orsini, ‘The Multilingual Local in World Literature’, pp. 345–74.

12 Levy, ‘Reorienting Hebrew Literary History’.

13 Ronit Ricci, ‘Multilingual Sri Lanka’ (SOAS, University of London, April 2016).

14 Mary Louise Pratt, ‘Arts of the Contact Zone’, Profession (1991): pp. 33–40.

15 David J. Lunn, ‘Looking for Common Ground: Aspects of Cultural Production in Hindi/Urdu, 1900–1947’ (PhD, SOAS, University of London, 2012), http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15640/ (accessed 29 May 2019); Thornber, Karen Laura, Empire of Texts in Motion: Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese Transculturations of Japanese Literature (Harvard University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Thornber, Empire of Texts in Motion.

17 Orsini, ‘How to Do Multilingual Literary History?’.

18 Levy, ‘Reorienting Hebrew Literary History’.

19 Ibid., p. 130.

20 Massey, For Space, p. 9.

21 Loc. cit.

22 Ibid., p. 153.

23 Massey, For Space.

24 Lunn, ‘Looking for Common Ground’.

25 For language, religious, and cultural revivalism, see Dharmadāsa, Kē En Ō, Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka (University of Michigan Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Kailasapathy, ‘Tamil Consciousness in Eelam’; Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam, Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (UBC Press, 2000)Google Scholar. For political history and some cultural context, see de Silva, K. M., A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin Books, 2005)Google Scholar; Wickramasinghe, Nira, Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Indentities (University of Hawai'i Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

26 Kandiah, Thiru, ‘“Kaduva”: Power and the English Language Weapon in Sri Lanka’, in English in Sri Lanka: Ceylon English, Lankan English, Sri Lankan English, ed. Fernando, S., Gunasekara, Manique, and Parakrama, Arjuna (Sri Lanka English Language Teachers’ Association, 2010), pp. 3665Google Scholar.

27 See DeVotta, Neil, ‘From Linguistic Parity to Sinhala Only’, in Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka, ed. DeVotta, Neil (Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 4272Google Scholar.

28 Sarasavi, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.

29 Kailasapathy, ‘Tamil Consciousness in Eelam’.

30 Wilson, Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism, p. 31.

31 M. Sitralega, personal communication, 7 July 2016.

32 See, for example, Karthigesu Sivathambi, ‘Is It Sri Lankan Literature in Tamil or Tamil Literature in Sri Lanka?’, July 2003, http://www.tamilcanadian.com/article/1907 (accessed 29 May 2019).

33 For more on Dharmapala, Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism, and the Bengal connection, see Dharmadāsa, Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness, ‘The Nineteenth Century Buddhist Revival’, and ‘Revivalism, Social Mobilization, and the Sinhala Language’.

34 Ibid., p. 146.

35 Kamal Wickremasinghe, ‘Rabindranath Tagore: Portrait of a Torn Soul’, 10 May 2016, http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=144998 (accessed 29 May 2019).

36 Jayatilaka, Tissa, ‘The English Language Novel of Sri Lanka and the Critical Response to It: An Overview’, Navasilu, no. 17 (2000): p. 8Google Scholar.

37 Halpe, ‘Sri Lankan Literature in English’, p. 287.

38 Coperahewa, Sandagomi, ‘Linguistic Identity and Growth of Language Consciousness: Indo Aryan vs Dravidian Debate, 1920–1935’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka 55 (2009): p. 66Google Scholar.

39 Coperahewa, Sandagomi, ‘Language Contact and Linguistic Area: Sinhala-Tamil Contact Situation’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka 53 (2007): pp. 133–52Google Scholar.

40 Cheran, R., ‘Cultural Politics of Tamil Nationalism’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 12, no. 1 (1 January 1992): pp. 44–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41 Goonetilleke, Sri Lankan English Literature, p. 137.

42 Obeyesekere, Ranjini, ‘The Sinhala Literary Tradition: Polemics and Debate’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 12, no. 1 (1 January 1992): p. 38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Cheran, ‘Cultural Politics of Tamil Nationalism’, p. 44; Karthigesu Sivathambi, ‘50 Years of Eelam Tamil Literature’, 1995, http://tamilnation.co/literature/eelam/95sivathamby.htm (accessed 29 May 2019).

44 Coperahewa, Sandagomi, ‘Purifying the Sinhala Language: The Hela Movement of Munidasa Cumaratunga (1930s–1940s)’, Modern Asian Studies 46, no. 4 (2012): pp. 857–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Ibid., p. 875.

46 Gooneratne, Yasmine, ‘A Perspective on the Poetry of Sri Lanka’, Journal of South Asian Literature 12, no. 1/2 (1976): p. 1Google Scholar.

47 Obeyesekere, Ranjini and Fernando, Chitra, An Anthology of Modern Writing from Sri Lanka (Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press, 1981), p. 10Google Scholar.

48 K. S. Sivakumaran, ‘Karthigesu Sivathamby—Sri Lankan Scholar with International Recognition’, The Island, 31 August 2005, http://www.island.lk/2004/08/04/midwee07.html (accessed 29 May 2019).

49 See, for example, the evaluation given by Dissanayake, Wimal, ‘A Note on Lakdasa Wikkramasinha's Sinhala Poetry’, Navasilu 2 (1979): pp. 31–2Google Scholar.

50 A thorough bibliography of Sivathamby's work can be seen in ‘Research Papers in English’, Sivathamby, http://sivathamby.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=88&Itemid=549 (accessed 11 August 2016).

51 Sunil Wijesiriwardena, personal communication, 24 July 2016.

52 S. Canagarajah, personal communication, 9 June 2016.

53 Ajith Samaranayake, ‘The Passing of a Generation’, 8 June 2003, http://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2003/06/08/fea04.html (accessed 7 June 2019).

54 Ashley Halpe, ‘Ludowyk, English, and the Sri Lankan University’, 16 October 2006, http://archives.dailynews.lk/2006/10/16/fea02.asp (accessed 29 May 2019).

55 Ranjini Obeyesekere, ‘Ediriweera Sarachchandra: A Renaissance Man’, Colombo Telegraph, 20 July 2014, https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/ediriweera-sarachchandra-a-renaisance-man/ (accessed 29 May 2019).

56 Stanley Wijesundera, ‘Professor Subramaniam Vithiananthan: An Appreciation’, Tamil Times, February 1989.

57 Sinniah Maunaguru, personal communication, 6 July 2016; Dharmasiri Bandaranaike, personal communication, 26 July 2016.

58 Ernest MacIntyre, ‘Ceylon, Sri Lanka And India: The Ediriweera Sarachchandra Encounter’, Colombo Telegraph, 27 November 2014, https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/ceylon-sri-lanka-and-india-the-ediriweera-sarachchandra-encounter/ (accessed 29 May 2019); Coperahewa, ‘Language Contact and Linguistic Area’, p. 147.

59 P. B. Galahitiyawe, ‘The 94th Birth Anniversary of the Late Prof. Ediriweera Sarachchandra Falls Today Maname and Its Impact on Our National Culture’, 6 March 2008, http://www.island.lk/2008/06/03/features3.html (accessed 29 May 2019).

60 Halpe, ‘Ludowyk, English, and the Sri Lankan University’.

61 Ibid.; Rajan Philips, ‘Jaffna's Literary Soul: A Tribute to A.J. Canagaratne’, 2006, http://www.sundaytimes.lk/061029/Plus/pls21.html (accessed 29 May 2019).

62 Jayasuriya, J. E., ‘Language in Education’, in Education in Ceylon: Before and after Independence 1939–1968, ed. Jayasuriya, J. E. (Associated Educational Publishers, 1969), p. 64Google Scholar.

63 DeVotta, Blowback, p. 45.

64 For details on the policy changes see Jayasuriya, Education in Ceylon, and for an overview of swabasha movement, see deVotta, ‘From Linguistic Parity to Sinhala Only’.

65 In Sri Lanka, the category ‘Muslim’ is seen as an ethnoreligious identity apart from Sinhalese and Tamil. For this article, I have reproduced this terminology of ‘Sinhala, Tamil, and Muslim’ as the three major communities of Sri Lanka to follow conventions of discourse about communal relations in Sri Lanka.

66 ‘History’, University of Jaffna, http://www.jfn.ac.lk/index.php/history/ (accessed 1 August 2016).

67 Karthigesu Sivathambi, ‘University of Jaffna and Its Vice Chancellors’, March 2003, http://www.tamilcanadian.com/article/1692 (accessed 29 May 2019).

68 A. J. Canagaratna, ‘Regi Siriwardene the Multi Faceted Human Being’, http://www.island.lk/2005/03/20/features5.html (accessed 1 August 2016); Philips, ‘Jaffna's Literary Soul’.

69 Mahendran Thiruvarangan, ‘Clash At Jaffna University: Conversations on Culture & History—Part II’, Colombo Telegraph, 28 July 2016, https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/clash-at-jaffna-university-conversations-on-culture-history-part-ii/ (accessed 29 May 2019).

70 S. Canagarajah, personal communication, 9 June 2016.

71 Neervai Ponnaiyan, personal communication, 11 July 2016.

72 D. B. S. Jeyaraj, ‘How and Why the LTTE Evicted Muslims from the Northern Province 25 Years Ago in “Black October 1990”’, Dbsjeyaraj.com, 10 November 2015, http://dbsjeyaraj.com/dbsj/archives/43660 (accessed 29 May 2019).

73 Information on the Progressive Writers Association and Ceylon Progressive Writers Association from personal communications with Neervai Ponnaiyan, 11 July 2016, Colombo.

74 Information on Vibhavi Centre and the literary culture of the 1990s from personal communications in Colombo with Sunil Wijesiriwardena, 24 July 2016, and Neervai Ponnaiyan, 11 July 2016.

75 Personal communication from Jayasundera to Sunil Wijesiriwardena, conveyed to me on 24 July 2016.

76 Information on film culture is from D. B. S. Jeyaraj, ‘Jaffna Film Festival and Indigenous Tamil Cinema in Sri Lanka before “1983 Black July”’, Dbsjeyaraj.com, 16 October 2015, http://dbsjeyaraj.com/dbsj/archives/43235 (accessed 29 May 2019); Athanas Jesurasa, ‘Indigenous Tamil Cinema in Sri Lanka before “Black July”’, 25 September 2015, http://www.ft.lk/article/475611/Indigenous-Tamil-cinema-in-Sri-Lanka-before--Black-July- (accessed 29 May 2019) and personal communications with Dharmasiri Bandaranaike, 26 July 2016.

77 Sethu Das, ‘“The Land Minds of Sri Lanka”, March 2010, https://www.sethudas.info/ravindraranasinha (accessed 7 June 2019).

78 Information on this from Dharmasiri Bandaranaike, ‘A National and International Appeal to Artists, Human Rights Organizations and Mass Organizations: Defend the Performing Rights of Sri Lankan Artists from Fascist Attacks’, Trikone Cultural Foundation, http://trikonecf.net/human_rights.php (accessed 11 August 2016); Champika Ranwaka, ‘Pongu Tamil Thugs Attacked Patriotic Sinhalese in Colombo’, http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items03/041103-5.html (accessed 7 June 2016); TamilNet, ‘Mobs Attack Sinhala-Tamil Cultural Festival in Colombo’, 29 October 2003, https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=10278 (accessed 29 May 2019) and personal communications with Dharmasiri Bandaranaike, 26 July 2013, Colombo.

79 Lakshman Gunesekara, ‘Dangers of Sinhala Extremism: Hiru vs. Hela Urumaya: A Draw for Now?’, 2 November 2003, http://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2003/11/02/fea04.html (accessed 7 June 2019); TamilNet, ‘Proud to Shed Blood to Protect Tamils’, 29 October 2003, https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=10285 (accessed 29 May 2019).

80 Deepal Warnakulasuriya, ‘Attack on Sinhala-Tamil Arts Fest’, 2 November 2003, http://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2003/11/02/new14.html (accessed 7 June 2019).

81 See Ranwaka, ‘Pongu Tamil Thugs Attacked Patriotic Sinhalese in Colombo’.

82 S. Vithiananthan and Sachi Sri Kantha, ‘Tamil Studies in Ceylon; a Review Essay of 1968’, http://www.sangam.org/2009/05/Tamil_Studies.php?uid=3462 (accessed 31 July 2016).

83 Nuhman, ‘Ethnic Conflict and Literary Perception’.

84 Kanaganayakam, Chelva, ‘Dancing in the Rarefied Air: Reading Contemporary Sri Lankan Literature’, ARIEL: A Review of International English Literature 29, no. 1 (1998)Google Scholar; Obeyesekere, Ranjini, ‘Sinhala and Tamil Writing from Sri Lanka’, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University 22, no. 1 (1987): pp. 15Google Scholar.; Obeyesekere and Fernando, An Anthology of Modern Writing from Sri Lanka.

85 TamilNet, ‘“Sri Lanka” Poetry: Rajapaksa Man Edits, India Publishes, SL-Canada Mission Launches’, 29 May 2013, https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=36359 (accessed 7 June 2019).