Abstract
This work develops a theory of happiness from value mechanisms. We assume two opposite states of expectation and information that combine (superpose) to create a mixed state of value. Value’s state probabilistically subsists (by the auto-creative expectational states in uncertainty, i.e., the possibility of many solutions) and collapses into a unique solution (by the auto-destructive informational state, i.e., the disclosure of the solution). Happiness emerges from these collapse moments when expectation reaches its “wanted” novel information as the ultimate reward. Evidence to substantiate this theory comes from value mechanisms in economics, biology, and physics.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrasmson, E. E., & Stinson, S. G. (1977). Boredom and eating in non-obese individuals. Addictive Behaviors, 2(4), 181–185.
Albert, D. Z. (1992). Quantum mechanics and experience. London: Harvard University Press.
Arnold, M. L. (2006). Evolution through genetic exchange. Georgia: Oxford University Press.
Asghari, V., Sanyal, S., Buchwaldt, S., Paterson, A., Jovanovic, V., & Van Tol, H. H. (1995). Modulation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels by different human dopamine D4 receptor variants. Journal of Neurochemistry, 65(3), 1157–1165.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Bardo, M. T., Donohew, R. L., & Harrington, N. G. (1996). Psychobiology of novelty seeking and drug seeking behaviour. Behavioral and Brain Research, 77, 23–43.
Baucells, M., & Sarin, R. K. (2007). Satiation in discounted utility. Operations Research, 55(1), 170–181.
Beaulieu, J.-M., & Gainetdinov, R. R. (2011). The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine receptors. Pharmacological Reviews, 63(1), 182–217.
Becker, B., Murphy, K., & Tamura, R. (1990). Human capital, fertility and economic growth. Journal of Political Economy, 98, 12–37.
Bell, D. E. (1974). Evaluating time streams of income. International Journal of Management Science, 2(5), 691–699.
Benjamin, J., Li, L., Patterson, C., Greenberg, B. D., Murphy, D. L., & Hamer, D. H. (1996). Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12(1), 81–84.
Berridge, K. (2007). The debate over dopamine’s role in reward: The case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology., 191, 391–431.
Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2011). Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well-being. Psychology of Well-Being, 1(3), 1–26.
Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews, 28, 309–369.
Bérut, A., Arakelyan, A., Petrosyan, A., Ciliberto, S., Dillenschneider, R., & Lutz, E. (2012). Experimental verification of Landauer’s principle linking information and thermodynamics. Nature, 483, 187–189.
Biederman, I., & Vessel, E. A. (2006). Perceptual pleasure and the brain: A novel theory explains why the brain craves information and seeks it through the senses. American Scientist, 94(3), 247–253.
Binswanger, M. (2006). Why does income growth fail to make us happier? Searching for the treadmills behind the paradox of happiness. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 35, 366–381.
Blum, K., et al. (2009). Genes and happiness. Gene Therapy and Molecular Biology, 13, 91–129.
Brickman, P., & Campbell, D. (1971). Hedonic relativism and planning the good society. In M. H. Apley (Ed.), Adaptation-level theory: A symposium (pp. 287–302). New York: Academic Press.
Brinkmann, S. (2006). Mental life in the space of reasons. Journal of the Theory of Social Behaviour, 36(1), 1–16.
Bromberg-Martin, E. S., Matsumoto, M., & Hikosaka, O. (2010). Dopamine in motivational control rewarding, aversive, and alerting. Neuron, 68, 815–834.
Cabanac, M. (1971). Physiological role of pleasure. Science, 173, 1103–1107.
Carruthers, P. (2017). Valence and value. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 97, 658–680.
Clark, A., et al. (2008). Relative income, happiness and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95–144.
Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990.
Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or for worse: The impact of upward social comparisons on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 51–69.
Colombo, M., & Wright, W. (2017). Explanatory pluralism: An unrewarding prediction error for free energy theorists. Brain and Cognition, 112, 3–12.
Conrad, P. (1997). It’s boring: Notes on the meanings of boredom in everyday life. Qualitative Sociology, 20, 465–475.
Cranford, J. (2010) Lifeos: Exploring the system that executes DNA (1st Ed.), Mama Yerba Publications, New York.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why aren't we happy? Amercian Psychologist, 54(10), 821–827.
Deth, R. C. (2003). Molecular origins of human attention: The dopamine-Folate connection. Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Di Paolo, E. A. (2003). Spike-timing dependent plasticity for evolved robots. Adaptive Behavior, 10(3/4), 243–263.
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61(4), 305–314.
Ding, Y. C., Chi, H. C., Grady, D. L., Morishima, A., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., et al. (2002). Evidence of positive selection acting at the humandopamine receptor D4 gene locus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., 99(1), 309–314.
D'Souza, U. M., Russ, C., Tahir, E., Mill, J., McGuffin, P., Asherson, P. J., & Craig, I. W. (2004). Functional effects of a tandem duplication polymorphism in the 5-prime flanking region of the DRD4 gene. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 691–697.
Dulawa, S. C., Grandy, D. K., Low, M. J., Paulus, M. P., & Geyer, M. A. (1999). Dopamine D4 receptor-knock-out mice exhibit reduced exploration of novel stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 9550–9556.
Easterlin, R. A. (1974). In P. A. David & M. W. Reder (Eds.), Does economic growth improve the human lot? Some empirical evidence, in nations and households in economic growth: Essays in honour of Moses Abramowitz. Academic Press: New York and London.
Eastwood, J. D., Cavaliere, C., Fahlman, S. A., & Eastwood, A. E. (2007). A desire for desires: Boredom and its relation to alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1035–1045.
Egner, T., Monti, J. M., & Summerfield, C. (2010). Expectation and surprise determine neural population responses in the ventral visual stream. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 16601–16608.
Elliott, S. L., Georgeson, M. A., & Webster, M. A. (2011). Response normalization and blur adaptation: Data and multi-scale model. Journal of Vision, 11(2), 1–18.
Epstein, L. H., et al. (2005). Effects of allocation of attention on habituation to olfactory and visual food stimuli in children. Physiology and Behavior, 84(2), 313–319.
Eriksson, P., et al. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4, 1313–1317.
Eunju, et al. (2015). Religiousness, spirituality, and eudaimonic and hedonic well-being. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 28(2), 132–149.
Evans, A. H., Pavese, N., Lawrence, A. D., Tai, Y. F., Appel, S., Doder, M., Brooks, D. J., Lees, A. J., & Piccini, P. (2006). Compulsive drug use linked to sensitized ventral striatal dopamine transmission. Annals of Neurology, 59, 852–858.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
Fink, J. S., & Smith, G. P. (1980). Mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic neurons are necessary for normal exploratory behavior in rats. Neuroscience Letters, 17, 61–65.
Frank, M. J., & Claus, E. d. (2006). Anatomy of a decision: Striatoorbitofrontal interactions in reinforcement learning, decision making, and reversal. Psychological Review, 113(2), 300–326.
Frijda, N. H., Kuipers, P., & Schure, E. (1989). Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 212–228.
Friston, K. (2008). Hierarchical models in the brain. PLoS Computational Biology, 4(11), e1000211.
Glimcher, P. W. (2003). Decisions, uncertainty, and the brain: The science of neuroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Grady, D. L., Chi, H. C., Ding, Y. C., Smith, M., Wang, E., Schuck, S., Flodman, P., Spence, M. A., Swanson, J. M., & Moyzis, R. K. (2003). High prevalence of rare dopamine receptor D4 alleles in children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 8(5), 536–545.
Habib, A. M., Okorokov, A. L., Hill, M. N., Bras, J. T., Lee, M. C., Li, S., Gossage, S. J., van Drimmelen, M., Morena, M., Houlden, H., Ramirez, J. D., Bennett, D. L. H., Srivastava, D., & Cox, J. J. (2019). Microdeletion in a FAAH pseudogene identified in a patient with high anandamide concentrations and pain insensitivity. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 123(2), e249–e253.
Haidt, J. (2006). The happiness hypothesis: Finding modern truth in ancient wisdom. Cambridge: Basic.
Hameroff, S., & Penrose, R. (2014). Consciousness in the universe – A review of the Orch OR. Theory Physics of Life Reviews, 11(1), 39–78.
Heath, A. C., Cloninger, C. R., & Martin, N. G. (1994). Testing a model for the genetic structure of personality: A comparison of the personality systems of Cloninger and Eysenck. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 762–775.
Heizenberg, W. (1927) The physical principles of the quantum theory (translated by Carl Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt in 1930), University of ChicagoPress, Illinois.
Helson, H. (1964). Adaptation-level theory. New York: Harper & Row.
Herbst, J. J., et al. (2000). Do the dimensions of the temperament and character inventory map a simple genetic architecture? Evidence from molecular genetics and factor analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1285–1290.
Higgs, S., & Woodward, M. (2009). Television watching during lunch increases afternoon snack intake of young women. Appetite, 52(1), 39–43.
Holt, D. B. (1998). Does cultural capital structure american consumption? Journal of Consumer Research, 25(1), 1–25.
Ikemoto, S., & Panksepp, J. (1999). The role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in motivated behavior: A unifying interpretation with special reference to reward-seeking. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 6–41.
Inglehart, R. F. (1990). Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Crowley, E. D. (1991). Adolescent substance abuse and leisure boredom. Journal of Leisure Research, 23(3), 260–271.
Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Weissinger, E. (1987). Leisure and boredom. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5(3), 356–364.
Joffily, M., & Coricelli, G. (2013). Emotional valence and the free-energy principle. PLoS Computational Biology, 9(6), e1003094.
Joshanloo, M. (2012). A comparison of Western and Islamic conceptions of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(6), 1857–1874.
Jovanovic, V., Guan, H. C., & Von Tol, H. H. (1999). Comparative pharmacological and functional analysis of the human dopamine D4.2 and D4.10 receptor variants. Pharmacogenetics, 9(5), 561–568.
Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: Thefoundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage.
Kahneman, D., & Krueger, A. B. (2006). Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(1), 3–24.
Kass, S. J., Vodanovich, S. J., Stanny, C. J., & Taylor, T. M. (2001). Watching the clock: Boredom and vigilance performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 969–976.
Kirkup, L. and Frenkel, R. B. (2010). An introduction to uncertainty in measurement, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kjell, O. (2011). Sustainable well-being: A potential synergy between sustainability and well-being research. Review of General Psychology, 15(3), 255–266.
Kluger, A. N., Siegfried, Z., & Ebstein, R. P. (2002). A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 712–717.
Lachowicz, J. E., & Sibley, D. R. (1997). Molecular characteristics of mammalian dopamine receptors. Pharmacology and Toxicology, 81(3), 105–113.
Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, F. J., & Feldman, M. W. (1999). Evolutionary consequences of niche construction and their implications for ecology. Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences, 96, 10242–10247.
Lauritsen, M. B., Pedersen, C. B., & Mortensen, P. B. (2005). Effects of familial risk factors and place of birth on the risk of autism: A nationwide register-based study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 963–971.
Layard, R. (2006). Happiness and public policy: A challenge to the profession. Economic Journal, 116, C24–C33.
Leonard, W. R., & Robertson, M. L. (1997). Comparative primate energetics and hominid evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102, 265–281.
Lloyd, S. (2001). Ultimate physical limits to computation. Nature, 406, 1047–1054.
Matthews, L. J., & Butler, P. M. (2011). Novelty-seeking DRD4 polymorphisms are associated with human migration distance out-of-Africa after controlling for neutral population gene structure. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 145, 382–389.
McSweeney, F. K., & Swindell, S. (1999). General-process theories of motivation revisited: The role of habituation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 437–457.
Montague, P. R., Dayan, P., Person, C., & Sejnowski, T. J. (1995). Bee foraging in uncertain environments using predictive Hebbian learning. Nature, 377, 725–728.
Montague, P. R., Hyman, S. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Computational roles for dopamine in behavioral control. Nature, 431(7010), 760–767.
Morrant, J. C. (1984). Boredom in psychiatric practice. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry / La Revue canadienne de psychiatrie, 29(5), 431–434.
Nasser, A. (2012). Can money buy happiness? A macroeconomic multinational perspective on the Easterlin paradox. THURJ, 40(9).
Nelson, L. D., Meyvis, T., & Galak, J. (2009). Enhancing the television-viewing experience through commercial interruptions. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 160–172.
Niv, Y., Daw, N. D., & Dayan, P. (2006). Choice values. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 987–988.
Noble, E. P., Ozkaragoz, T. Z., Ritchie, T. L., Zhang, X., Belin, T. R., & Sparkes, R. S. (1998). D2 and D4 dopamine receptor polymorphisms and personality. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81(1), 257–267.
North D. C. (1990) Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance, Cambridge University Press.
Oak, J. N., Oldenhof, J., & Van Tol, H. H. M. (2000). The dopamine D4 receptor: One decade of research. European Journal of Pharmacology, 405, 303–327.
Olds, J., & Milner, P. (1954). Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47(6), 419–427.
Olshausen, B. A., & Field, D. J. (1996). Emergence of simple-cell receptive fields properties by learning a sparse code for natural images. Nature, 381, 607–609.
Ono, Y., Manki, H., Yoshimura, K., Muramatsu, T., Mizushima, H., Higuchi, S., Yagi, G., Kanba, S., & Asai, M. (1997). Association between dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism and novelty seeking in Japanese subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74, 501–503.
Pani, L. (2000). Is there an evolutionary mismatch between the normal physiology of the human dopaminergic system and current environmental conditions in industrialized countries? Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 467–475.
Pecina, S. (2008). Opioid reward ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ in the nucleus accumbens. Physiological Behaviour, 94, 675–680.
Penrose, R. (1996) Shadows of the mind: A search for the missing science of consciousness, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom.
Pierce, R. C., Crawford, C. A., Nonneman, A. J., Mattingly, B. A., & Bardo, M. T. (1990). Effect of forebrain dopamine depletion on novelty-induced place preference behavior in rats. Biochemistry and Behavior, 36, 321–325.
Pogue-Geile, M., Ferrell, R., Deka, R., Debski, T., & Manuck, S. (1998). Human novelty-seeking personality traits and dopamine D4 receptor polymorphisms: A twin and genetic association study. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81, 44–48.
Polanyi, K. (1957). Aristotle discovers the economy. In K. Polanyi, C. Arensberg, & H. Pearson (Eds.), Trade and market in the early empires (pp. 64–94). Chicago: Henry Regnery.
Polard, A. F. (2012) A unified theory of happiness: An east-meets-west approach to fully loving your life, Louisville: Sounds True, USA.
Potjans, W., Diesmann, M., & Morrison, A. (2011). An imperfect dopaminergic error signal can drive temporal-difference learning. PLoS Computational Biology, 7(5), 1–20.
Previc, F. H. (1999). Dopamine and the origins of human intelligence. Brain and Cognition, 41, 299–350.
Redden, J. P., & Galak, J. (2013). The subjective sense of feeling satiated: The role of metacognitions in the construction of satiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 209–217.
Redish, A. D. (2004). Addiction as a computational process gone awry. Science, 306(5703), 1944–1947.
Reich, T., & Wheeler, S. C. (2016). The good and bad of ambivalence: Desiring ambivalence under outcome uncertainty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(4), 493–508.
Reimers, S., Maylor, E. A., Stewart, N., & Chater, N. (2009). Associations between a one-shot delay discounting measure and age, income, education and real-world impulsive behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 973–978.
Reynolds, B. (2006). A review of delay-discounting research with humans: Relations to drug use and gambling. Behavioural Pharmacology, 17(6), 651–667.
Ridley, M. (2013) Genome: Autobiography of a species in 23 chapters, HarperCollins Publishers, Toronto.
Robbins, R., McKone, E., & Edwards, M. (2007). Aftereffects for face attributes with different natural variability: Adapter position effects and neural models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 33(3), 570–592.
Rolls, B. J., Rowe, E. A., Rolls, E. T., Kingston, B., Megson, A., & Gunary, R. (1981). Variety in a meal enhances food intake in man. Physiological Behaviours, 26, 215–221.
Romo, R., & Schultz, W. (1990). Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: Contingencies of responses to active touch during self-initiated arm movements. Journal of Neurophysiology, 63, 592–606.
Rubinstein, M., Cepeda, C., Hurst, R. S., Flores-Hernandez, J., Ariano, M. A., Falzone, T. L., et al. (2001). Dopamine D4 receptor-deficient mice display cortical hyperexcitability. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(11), 3756–3763.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Mingote, S. M., & Weber, S. M. (2005). Beyond the reward hypothesis: Alternative functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 5, 34–41.
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Farrar, A., & Mingote, S. M. (2007). Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits. Psychopharmacology, 191, 461–482.
Schoots, O., & Van Tol, H. H. (2003). The human dopamine D4 receptor repeat sequences modulate expression. Pharmacogenomics Journal, 3(6), 343–348.
Schrage, M. (1999). Sixteen tons of information overload. Fortune, 140, 244.
Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1–27.
Schultz, W. (2010). Dopamine signals for reward value and risk: Basic and recent data. Behavioural and Brain Functions, 6(24), 2–9.
Schultz, W. (2015). Neuronal reward and decision signals: From theories to data. Physical Review, 95, 853–951.
Schultz, W., Apicella, P., & Ljungberg, T. (1993). Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. Journal of Neuroscience, 13(3), 900–913.
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275(5306), 1593–1599.
Seaman, M. I., Fisher, J. B., Chang, F. M., & Kidd, K. K. (1999). Tandem duplication polymorphism upstream of the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4). American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 705–709.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Shanta, B. N. (2015). Life and consciousness – The Vedantic view. Communicative & Integrative Biology, 8(5), e1085138.
Shenk, D. (1997). Data smog: Surviving the information glut. San Francisco: Harper.
Shimony, A. (1993). Search for a naturalistic world view - volume II, natural science and metaphysics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shohamy, D., & Adcock, A. (2010). Dopamine and adaptive memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(10), 464–472.
Sinding, C. (2016) New determinants of olfactory habituation. Scientific Reports, 7.
Solomon, R. L., & Corbit, J. D. (1974). An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review, 81, 119–145.
Stapel, D. A., & Marx, D. M. (2007). Distinctiveness is key: How different types of self-other similarity moderate social comparison effects. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(3), 439–448.
Steger, M. F., & Frazier, P. (2005). Meaning in life: One link in the chain from religiousness towell-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 574–582.
Stevenson, B., & Wolfers, J. (2008). Happiness inequality in the United States. Journal of Legal Studies, 37(2), 533–579.
Swanson, J., Deutsch, C., Cantwell, D., Posner, M., Kennedy, J., Barr, C., Moyzis, R., Schuck, S., Flodman, P., & Spence, M. A. (2001). Genes and attention-deficit hyperactvity disorder. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 1(3), 207–216.
Terzis, G. and Arp, R. (2011) Information and living systems: Philosophical and scientific perspectives, MIT Press, Cambridge.
Todorovic, A., & De Lange, F. P. (2012). Repetition suppression and expectation suppression are dissociable in time in early auditory evoked fields. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(39), 13389–13395.
Tonegawa, S., Liu, X., Ramirez, S., & Redondo, R. (2015). Memory engram cells have come of age. Neuron, 87(5), 918–931.
Trevorrow, K., & Moore, S. (1998). The association between loneliness, social isolation and women's electronic gaming machine gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 14(3), 263–284.
Van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2003). To do or to have? That is the question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6), 1193–1202.
van Tol, et al. (1992). Multiple dopamine D4 receptor variants in the human population. Nature, 358, 149–152.
von Neumann, J. (1932) Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik (mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics) Princeton University press.
Walker, E. H. (2000). The physics of consciousness: Quantum minds and the meaning of life. Cambridge: Perseus.
Wang, E., Ding, Y. C., Flodman, P., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., Grady, D. L., Ryder, O. A., Spence, M. A., Swanson, J. M., & Moyzis, R. K. (2004). The genetic architecture of selection at the human dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4). American Journal of Human Genetics, 74, 931–944.
Watt, J. D., & Vodanovich, S. J. (1999). Boredom proneness and psychosocial development. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 133(3), 303–314.
Weinstein, N. (1982). Community noise problems: Evidence against adaptation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2(2), 87–97.
Weinstein, L., Xie, X., & Cleanthous, C. C. (1995). Purpose in life, boredom, and volunteerism in a group of retirees. Psychological Reports, 76(2), 482.
White House. (2015) Big data: Seizing opportunities preserving values, Interim progress report, Executive Office of the President, Wasthington, USA.
Wigner, E. P. (1967). Remarks on the mind-body question in symmetries and reflections (pp. 171–184). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Williams, J., & Dayan, P. (2005). Dopamine, learning, and impulsivity: A biological account of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15(2), 160–179.
Young, S. N. (2007). How to increase serotonin in the human brain without drugs. Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 32(6), 394–399.
Zuckerman, M. (1995). Good and bad humours: Biochemical bases of personality and its disorders. Psychological Science, 6(6), 325–332.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
I declare that I have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Özdilek, Ü. Sensing Happiness in Senseless Information. Applied Research Quality Life 16, 2059–2084 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09854-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09854-x