Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Rethinking Middle Bronze Age Communities on Cyprus: “Egalitarian” and Isolated or Complex and Interconnected?

  • Published:
Journal of Archaeological Research Aims and scope

Abstract

Current views of Cyprus during the Middle Bronze Age (or Middle Cypriot period) depict an island largely isolated from the wider eastern Mediterranean world and comprised largely if not exclusively of “egalitarian,” agropastoral communities. In this respect, its economy stands at odds with those of polities in other, nearby regions such as the Levant, or Crete in the Aegean. The publication of new excavations and new readings of legacy data necessitate modification of earlier views about Cyprus’s political economy during the Middle Bronze Age, prompting this review. We discuss at some length the island’s settlement and mortuary records, materials related to internal production, external exchange and connectivities, and the earliest of the much discussed but still enigmatic fortifications. We suggest that Middle Bronze Age communities are likely to have been significantly more complex, mobile, and interconnected than once envisaged and that the changes that mark the closing years of this period and the transition to the internationalism of Late Bronze Age Cyprus represent the culmination of an evolving series of internal developments and external interactions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References Cited

  • Altenmüller, H., and Moussa, A. M. (1991). Die Inschrift Amenemhets II aus dem Ptah-Tempel von Memphis: Ein Vorbericht. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 18: 1–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreou, G. M. (2019). Socioeconomics of agrarian production: Considering rural cooperatives in the archaeology of the eastern Mediterranean through the lens of 2nd millennium BCE Cyprus. World Archaeology 51: 291–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Åström, P. (1957). The Middle Cypriote Bronze Age, Håkan Ohlssons Boktryckeri, Lund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Åström, P. (1966). Excavations at Kalopsidha and Ayios Iakovos in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 2, Paul Åströms Förlag, Lund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Åström, P. (1972a). The Swedish Cyprus Expedition Volume IV, Part 1B, The Middle Cypriote Bronze Age, Swedish Cyprus Expedition, Lund.

  • Åström, P. (1972b). Some aspects of the Late Cypriote I period. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1972: 46–57.

  • Åström, P. (1989). Katydhata. A Bronze Age Site in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 86, Paul Åströms Förlag, Partille, Sweden.

  • Åström. P., and Wright, G. H. R. (1962). Two Bronze Age tombs at Dhenia in Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia 4: 225–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachhuber, C. (2014). The Anatolian context of Philia material culture in Cyprus. In Knapp, A. B., and van Dommelen, P. (eds.), The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 139–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balthazar, J. W. (1990). Copper and Bronze Working in Early through Middle Bronze Age Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature Pocket-book 84, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartelheim, M., Kızılduman, B., and Müller, U. (2019). Bronze Age fortifications on Cyprus. In Hansen, S., and Krause, R. (eds.), Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe, Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie 335, Habelt-Verlag, Bonn, pp. 29–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bear, L. M. (1963). The Mineral Resources and Mining Industry of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Cyprus, Bulletin 1, Ministry of Science and Industry, Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (1997). A coppersmith’s tomb of Early–Middle Bronze Age in Pyrgos (Limassol). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1997: 119–146.

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2000). Project ‘Pyrame’ 1998–1999: Archaeological, metallurgical and historical evidence at Pyrgos (Limassol). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2000: 1–17.

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2002). Rescue-excavated tombs of the Early and Middle Bronze Age from Pyrgos (Limassol): Part I. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2002: 1–32.

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2004). Pyrgos-Mavroraki: Advanced Technology in Bronze Age Cyprus, Theopress Ltd., Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2009a). Progetto Pyrame: Pyrgos ricerche archeologiche e archeometallurgiche, lo stato dell’arte a dicembre 2008. In Belgiorno, M. R. (ed.), Cipro all’Inizio dell’Età del Bronzo. Realtà sconosciute della comunità industrial di Pyrgos/Mavroraki, Gangemi Editore, Rome, pp. 14–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2009b). New suggestions from Pyrgos/Mavrorachi on Cypriote 2000 BC proto-industrial society and its gender perspectives. In Medelhavsmuseet. Focus on the Mediterranean 5, Finds and Results From the Swedish Cyprus Expedition 1927–1931: A Gender Perspective, Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm, pp. 50–62.

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2017). Pyrgos/Mavroraki. In Belgiorno, M. R. (ed.), Archaeometry and Aphrodite, de Strobel, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgiorno, M. R. (2019). Pyrgos (Lm), The Early–Middle Bronze Age Necropolis. From Tomb 1 to Tomb 19, Scripta Cypria 1, de Strobel, Nicosia, Cyprus.

  • Belgiorno, M. R., Ferro, D., and Loepp, D. R. (2012) Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy. In Kassianidou, V., and Papasavvas, G. (eds.), Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 26–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgiorno, M. R., Ferro, D., and Loepp, D. R. (2016). Excavations at Pyrgos/Mavroraki Cyprus: The metallurgical installation of Early–Middle Bronze Age. In Thuesen, I. (ed.), Proceedings of the Second International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Volume 1, University of Bologna and Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, pp. 803–821.

  • Belgiorno, M. R., Ferro, D., and Loepp, D. R. (2017). Pyrgos (Lemesos) and its territory: Preliminary report 2010. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2011–2012 (2017): 327–364.

  • Blue, L. K. (1997). Cyprus and Cilicia: The typology and palaeogeography of second millennium harbors. In Swiny, S., Hohlfelder, R. L., and Swiny, H. W. (eds.), Res Maritimae: Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean from Prehistory to Late Antiquity, CAARI Monograph Series 1, Scholars Press, Atlanta, pp. 31–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolger, D., and Peltenburg, E. (2014). Material and social transformations in 3rd millennium BC Cyprus: Evidence of ceramics. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning. Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 187–198.

  • Bombardieri, L. (2013). The development and organisation of labour strategies in prehistoric Cyprus: The evidence from Erimi Laonin tou Porakou. In Knapp, A. B., Webb, J. M., and McCarthy, A. (eds.), J. R. B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139, Åström’s Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 91–102.

  • Bombardieri, L. (2014). The second face of identity: Processes and symbols of community affiliation in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning. Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åström’s Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 43–55.

  • Bombardieri, L. (2017). Erimi Laonin tou Porakou: A Middle Bronze Age Community in Cyprus: Excavations 2008–2014, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 145, Åström Editions, Uppsala, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boroffka, M., Cierny, J., Lutz, J., Parzinger, H., Pernicka, E., and Weisgerber, G. (2002). Bronze Age tin from central Asia: Preliminary notes. In Boyle, K., Renfrew, C., and Levine, M. (eds), Ancient Interactions: East and West in Eurasia, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 135–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broodbank, C. (2013). The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean From the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World, Thames and Hudson, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchholz, H.-G. (1973). Tamassos, Zypern, 1970–1972. Archäologischer Anzeiger 3: 295–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchholz, H.-G., and Untiedt, K. (1996). Tamassos. Ein antikes Königreich auf Zypern, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology Pocket-book 136, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

  • Carpenter, J. R. (1981). Excavations at Phaneromeni: 1975–1978. In Biers, J. C., and Soren, D. (eds.), Studies in Cypriote Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 59–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catling, H. W. (1962). Settlement patterns in Bronze Age Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia 4: 129–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catling, H. W., and MacGillivray, J. A. (1983). An Early Cypriot II vase from the palace at Knossos. Annual of the British School at Athens 78: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charaf, H. (2014). The northern Levant (Lebanon) during the Middle Bronze Age. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (c. 8000–332 BCE), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 434–450.

  • Charalambous, A., and Webb, J. M. (2020). Metal procurement, artefact manufacture and the use of imported tin bronze in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science 113: 105047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2019.105047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherry, J. F. (1986). Polities and palaces: Some problems in Minoan state formation. In Renfrew, C., and Cherry, J. F. (eds.), Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 19–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherry, J. F. (2009). Sorting out Crete’s Prepalatial off-island interactions. In Parkinson, W. A., and Galaty, M. L. (eds.), Archaic State Interaction: The Eastern Mediterranean in the Bronze Age, School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 107–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherry, J. F. (2017). Middle Helladic reflections. In Wiersma, W. C., and Voutsaki, S. (eds.), Social Change in Aegean Prehistory, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 168–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christofi, P., Stefani, E., and Bombardieri, L. (2015). Bridging the gap: Long-term use and re-use of the Bronze Age funerary area at Ypsonas-Vounaros and Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou. In Matthaus, H., Morstadt, B., and Vonhoff, C. (eds.), PoCA (Postgraduate Cypriot Archaeology) 2012, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Cambridge, pp. 130–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. L. (2002). Canaanites, Chronology, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze Age IIA Canaan to the Middle Kingdom, Studies in the History and Archaeology of the Levant 3, Harvard Semitic Museum and Eisenbrauns, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. L. (2014). The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Middle Bronze Age. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (c. 8000–332 BCE), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 451–464.

  • Cohen, S. L. (2016). Peripheral Concerns: Urban Development in the Bronze Age Southern Levant, Equinox, Sheffield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. E., and Barlow, J. A. (1996). Conclusions. In Coleman, J. E., Barlow, J. A., Mogelonsky, M. K., and Schaar, K. W., Alambra: A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus: Archaeological Investigations by Cornell University 1974–1985, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 118, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden, pp. 327–342.

  • Coleman, J. E., Barlow, J. A., Mogelonsky, M. K., and Schaar, K. W. (1996). Alambra: A Middle Bronze Age Site in Cyprus: Investigations by Cornell University, 1974–1978, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 118, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantinou, G., and Panayides, I. (2012). Appendix I: Geological aspects of the broader area of Limassol Bay. In Karageorghis, V., and Violaris, Y., Tombs of the Late Bronze Age in the Limassol Area (17th–13th Centuries BC), Municipality of Limassol, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 254–263.

  • Costin, C. L. (1991). Craft specialization: Issues in defining, documenting, and explaining the organization of production. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.), Archaeological Method and Theory 3, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 1–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costin, C. L. (2005). Craft production. In Maschner, H. D. G., and Chippendale, C. (eds.), Handbook of Methods in Archaeology, Volume I, AltaMira Press, Lanham, MD, pp. 1032–1105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtois, J.-C., Lagarce, J., and Lagarce, E. (1986). Enkomi et le Bronze Récent à Chypre, Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2007). Early Enkomi: Regionalism, Trade and Society at the Beginning of the Late Bronze Age on Cyprus, BAR International Series 1706, Archaeopress, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2010). Rethinking Kalopsidha: From specialisation to state marginalization. In Bolger, D. L., and Maguire, L. (eds.), The Development of Pre-state Communities in the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honour of Edgar Peltenburg, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 63–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2012). Beyond copper: Commodities and values in Middle Bronze Cypro-Levantine exchanges. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 31: 225–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2013). Regional connections during the Middle–Late Cypriot transition: New evidence from Kissonerga-Skalia. Pasiphae 7: 47–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2014). A reappearing Early Bronze Age in western Cyprus. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 137–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L. (2017). Interpreting settlement function and scale during MC III–LC IA using old excavations and new: Western Cyprus and Kisonerga (Kissonerga) Skalia in context. In Pilides, D., and Mina, M. (eds.), Four Decades of Hiatus in Archaeological Research in Cyprus: Towards Restoring the Balance, Studies on Ancient Cyprus 2, Holzhausen der Verlag, Vienna, pp. 140–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L., and Georgiou, A. (2018). Settlement nucleation at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age in Cyprus: The evidence from Palaepaphos. In Hulin, L., Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 53–70.

  • Crewe, L., and Hill, I. (2012). Finding beer in the archaeological record: A case study from Kissonerga-Skalia on Bronze Age Cyprus. Levant 44: 205–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crewe, L., Dalton, M., Hill, I., and Vallance, C. (2017). Second preliminary report of excavations at Kissonerga-Skalia, 2008–10. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2011–2012 (2017): 237–253.

  • Croft, P. (2006). Animal bones. In Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M., Marki Alonia. An Early and Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus. Excavations 1995–2000, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 123.2, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden, pp. 263–281.

  • Decker, L. F., Coleman, J. E., and Barlow, J. A. (1996). Tombs. In Coleman, J. E., Barlow, J. A. Mogelonsky, M. K., and Schaar, K. W., Alambra: A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus: Archaeological Investigations by Cornell University 1974–1985, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 118, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden, pp. 113–128.

  • Dikaios, P. (1940). The Excavations at Vounous-Bellapais in Cyprus, 1931–2, Archaeologia 88, Society of Antiquaries of London, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diakou, S., and Webb, J. M. (2018). Locating the Bronze Age tombs at Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba. In Webb, J. M., Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba, Cyprus: Early and Middle Bronze Age Tombs Excavated by Menelaos Markides, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 148, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 17–30.

  • Dikomitou-Eliadou, M. (2019). The fabric next door: A comparative study of pottery technology and composition at the Early and Middle Bronze Age settlements of Marki Alonia and Alambra Mouttes. In Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.), New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, pp. 75–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driessen, J. (2018). Beyond the collective … the Minoan palace in action. In Relaki, M., and Papadatos, Y. (eds.), From the Foundations to the Legacy of Minoan Archaeology: Studies in Honour of Professor Keith Branigan, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 291–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driessen, J., Schoep, I., and Laffineur, R. (eds.) (2002). Monuments of Minos: Rethinking the Minoan Palaces, Aegaeum 23, Universite de Liège, Liége, Belgium.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn-Vaturi, A.-E. (2003). Vounous: C. F. A. Schaeffer’s Excavations in 1933 Tombs 49–79, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 130, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

  • Duryea, D. (1965). The Necropolis of Phaneromeni and its relation to other Early Bronze Age sites in Cyprus. M.S. thesis, Faculty of the Graduate School, University of Missouri, Columbia.

  • Eder, C. (1995). Die Ägyptischen Motive in der Glyptik des Östlichen Mittelmeerraumes zu Anfang des 2. Jts. v. Chr., Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 71, Peeters, Leuven, Belgium.

  • Fabre, D. (2005). Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, Periplus, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, S. E., and Fall, P. L. (2013). Household and community behavior at Bronze Age Politiko Troullia, Cyprus. Journal of Field Archaeology 38: 101–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, S. E., and Fall, P. L. (2014). The meaning of space and place in Middle Cypriot communities. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åström Editions, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 175–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, S. E., and Fall, P. L. (2017). Archaeological and landscape studies at Politiko-Troullia, Cyprus. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2011–2012 (2017): 255–273.

  • Falconer, S. E., Fall, P. L., Hunt, J., and Metzger, M. C. (2005). Initial archaeological investigations at Politiko-Troullia, 2004. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2005: 69–85.

  • Falconer, S. E., Fall, P. L., Hunt, J., and Metzger, M. C. (2012). Agraian settlement at Politiko-Troullia, 2008. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2010: 183–198.

  • Fall, P. L., Falconer, S. E., Galletti, C. S., Schirmang, T., Ridder, E., and Klinge, J. (2012). Long-term agrarian landscapes in the Troodos foothills, Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 2335–2347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farinetti, E. (2000). Rilievi topografici in corso nell’area di Pyrgos/Mavrorakhi (Cyprus). Studi Micenei ed Egeo-anatolici 42: 336–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fasnacht, W., and Künzler Wagner, N. (2001) Stone casting moulds from Marki-Alonia. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2001: 38–41.

  • Fisher, K. D. (2014). Making the first cities on Cyprus: Urbanism and social change in the Late Bronze Age. In Creekmore, A., and Fisher, K. D. (eds.), Making Ancient Cities: Space and Place in Early Urban Societies, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 181–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fissore, M. (2017). Metal objects. In Bombardieri, L., Erimi Laonin tou Porakou: A Middle Bronze Age Community in Cyprus: Excavations 2008–2014, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 145, Åström Editions, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 245–248.

  • Flourentzos, P. (1989). A group of tombs of Middle Bronze Age date from Linou. In Åström, P., Katydhata. A Bronze Age Site in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 86, Paul Åströms Förlag, Partille, Sweden, pp. 61–68.

  • Frankel, D. (1974). Inter-site relationships in the Middle Bronze Age of Cyprus. World Archaeology 6: 190–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D. (1983). Corpus of Cypriote Antiquities 7: Early and Middle Bronze Age Material in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 20.7, Paul Åströms Förlag, Göteborg, Sweden.

  • Frankel, D. (1988). Pottery production in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: Assessing the problem. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 1.2: 27–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D. (1993). Inter- and intra-site variability in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: Types, ranges, trends. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 292: 59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D. (2000). Migration and ethnicity in prehistoric Cyprus: Technology as habitus. European Journal of Archaeology 3: 167–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D. (2002). Social stratification, gender and ethnicity in third millennium Cyprus. In Bolger, D., and Serwint, N. (eds), Engendering Aphrodite: Women and Society in Ancient Cyprus, Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph 3, American Schools of Oriental Research Archaeological Reports 7, American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, pp. 171–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D. (2014). Cyprus during the Middle Bronze Age. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (c. 8000–332 BCE), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 476–488.

  • Frankel, D. (2019). Exploring diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus. In Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.), New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, pp. 16–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (1996). Marki Alonia: An Early and Middle Bronze Age Town in Cyprus: Excavations 1990–1994, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 123, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2001). Population, households and ceramic consumption in a prehistoric Cypriot village. Journal of Field Archaeology 28: 115–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2006a). Marki Alonia: An Early and Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus: Excavations 1995–2000, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 123.2, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden.

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2006b). Neighbours: Negotiating space in a prehistoric village. Antiquity 80: 287–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2007). The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Deneia in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 135, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2012). Household continuity and transformation in a prehistoric Cypriot village. In Parker, B. J., and Foster, C. P. (eds.), New Perspectives in Household Archaeology, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, pp. 473–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gale, N. H., and Stos-Gale, Z. A. (2008). Changing patterns in prehistoric Cycladic metallurgy. In Brodie, N., Dole, J., Gavalas, G., and Renfrew, C. (eds.), Horizon. A Colloquium on the Prehistory of the Cyclades, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 387–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gale, N. H., Stos-Gale, Z. A., and Fasnacht, W. (1996). Metal and metalworking. In Coleman, J. E., Barlow, J. A. Mogelonsky, M. K., and Schaar, K. W., Alambra: A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus: Archaeological Investigations by Cornell University 1974–1985, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 118, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden, pp. 129–142.

  • Georgiou, G. (2007). The Topography of Human Settlement in Cyprus in the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (in Greek), Ph.D. dissertation, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.

  • Georgiou, G. (2008). The settlement at Alambra Mouttes revisited. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2008: 133–143.

  • Georgiou, G. (2009). The dynamism of central Cyprus during Middle Cypriot III: Funerary evidence from Nicosia Agia Paraskevi. In Hein, I. (ed.), The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium BC: Studies in Regionalism during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 20, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 52, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, pp. 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, G. (2013). 1955–2013: The necropolis of Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi almost 60 years after Stewart’s excavations. In Knapp, A. B., Webb, J. M., and McCarthy, A. (eds.), J. R. B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 81–90.

  • Georgiou, G. (2014). The area of Skouriotissa mine during the Bronze Age. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 109–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, G. (2017a). New light on prehistoric Nicosia from recent excavations (in Greek). Ιn Papadimitriou, N., and Toli, M. (eds.), Ancient Cyprus: Recent Developments in the Archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean, Cycladic Museum of Art, Athens, pp. 69–91.

  • Georgiou, G. (2017b). The political division of a culturally unified island: The case of Early and Middle Bronze Age in the northern part of Cyprus. In Pilides, D., and Mina, M. (eds.), Four Decades of Hiatus in Archaeological Research in Cyprus: Towards Restoring the Balance, Studies on Ancient Cyprus 2, Holzhausen der Verlag, Vienna, pp. 114–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, G. (2018). Ceramic innovation in central and northwestern Cyprus during the Middle/Late Cypriot transition: Two new additions. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2018: 3–17.

  • Gernez, G. (2012). La collection d’objets en bronze de Tell Sougha (ca. 2000 av. J.-C.) et la question des ‘porteurs de torques’ au Levant. Syria 89: 101–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giardino, C., Gigante, G. E., and Ridolfi, S. (2002). Archaeometallurgical investigations on the Early–Middle Bronze Age finds from the area of Pyrgos (Limassol). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2002: 33–48.

  • Given, M. (1998). Inventing the Eteocypriots: Imperialist archaeology and the manipulation of ethnic identity. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 11: 3–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Given, M. (2004). The Archaeology of the Colonized, Routledge, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gjerstad, E. (1926). Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus, Lundequistska Bokhandeln, Uppsala, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gjerstad, E. (1980). The origin and chronology of the Early Bronze Age in Cyprus. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1980: 1–16.

  • Gjerstad, E., Lindros, J., Sjoqvist, E., and Westholm, A. (1934). The Swedish Cyprus Expedition: Finds and Results of the Excavations in Cyprus 1927–1931, Volume 1, Swedish Cyprus Expedition, Stockholm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, V. (1940). A Cypriote tomb and Minoan evidence for its date. American Journal of Archaeology 44: 10–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, L. (2012). The necropolis at Kissonerga-Ammoudhia: New ceramic evidence from the Early–Middle Bronze Age in western Cyprus. In Georgiou, A. (ed.), Cyprus: An Island Culture: Society and Social Relations from the Bronze Age to the Venetian Period, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 38–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graziadio, G. (2013). A Middle Cypriot unique bowl from eastern Crete and the earliest contacts between Cyprus and the Aegean. In Graziadio, G., Guglielmino, R., Lenuzza, V., and Vitale, S. (eds.), Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology for Mario Benzi, BAR International Series 2460, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 165–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. (2002). Early Urbanizations in the Levant: A Regional Narrative, Leicester University Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. (2017). No collapse: Transmutations of Early Bronze Age urbanism in the southern Levant. In Höflmayer, F. (ed.), The Late Third Millennium in the Ancient Near East: Chronology, C14, and Climate Change, Oriental Institute Seminars 11, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 31–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. (2019). The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant: From Urban Origin to the Demise of City-States, 3700–1000 BCE, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gubel, E., and Loffet, H. (2011–2012). Sidon, Qedem and the Land of Iay. Archaeology and History in Lebanon 34–35: 79–92.

  • Hein, I. (2018). Second thoughts on Cypriot pottery and first appearances. In Forstner-Müller, I., and Moeller, N. (eds.), The Hyksos Ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research, Ergänzungshefte zu den Jahresheften des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes 17, Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, pp. 125–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helck, W. (1989) Ein Ausgreifen des Mittleren Reiches in den Zypriotischen Raum? Göttinger Miszellen 109: 27–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herscher, E. (1975). New light from Lapithos. In Robertson, N. (ed.), The Archaeology of Cyprus: Recent Developments, Noyes Press, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 39–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herscher, E. (1978). The Bronze Age Cemetery at Lapithos, Vrysi tou Barba, Cyprus: Results of the University of Pennsylvania Museum Excavation, 1931, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Classical Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

  • Herscher, E. (1981). Southern Cyprus, the disappearing Early Bronze Age and the evidence from Phaneromeni. In Biers, J. C., and Soren, D. (eds.), Studies in Cypriote Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 79–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herscher, E. (1988). Kition in the Middle Bronze Age: The tombs at Larnaca-Ayios Prodromos. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1988: 141–166.

  • Herscher, E. (1991). Beyond regionalism: Toward an island-wide Early and Middle Cypriot sequence. In Barlow, J., Bolger, D., and Kling, B. (eds.), Cypriot Ceramics: Reading the Prehistoric Record, University Museum Monograph 74, Leventis Foundation and University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, pp. 45–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirth, K. (2009). Intermittent crafting and multicrafting at Xochicalco. In Hirth, K. (ed.), Housework: Craft Production and Domestic Economy in Ancient Mesoamerica, Archeological Papers No. 19, American Anthropology Association, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 75–91.

  • Hodder, I. (2011). Human-thing entanglement: Towards an integrated archaeological perspective. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (n.s.) 17: 154–177.

  • Hodder, I. (2012). Entangled: An Archaeology of the Relationships between Humans and Things, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Höflmayer, F., Kamlah, J., Sader, H., Dee, M., Kutschera, W., Wild, E., and Riehl, S. (2016). New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology and synchronisms in the Levant: Radiocarbon dates from Tell el-Burak, Tell el-Dabʿa, and Tel Ifshar compared. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 375: 53–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. T. (2016). Early Bronze Age–Middle Bronze Age. In Todd, I. A., Vasilikos Valley Project 10: The Field Survey of the Vasilikos Valley II: Artefacts Recovered by the Field Survey, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.10, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 31–70.

  • Horowitz, M. T. (2018). Community storage and social change: Late Cypriot I pithoi at Phlamoudhi Vounari. In Hulin, L., Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 89–105.

  • Iacovou, M. (2007). Site size estimates and the diversity factor in Late Cypriot settlement histories. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 348: 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilan, D. (1995). The dawn of internationalism: The Middle Bronze Age. In Levy, T. E. (ed.), The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Leicester University Press, Leicester, pp. 297–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kafaya, M., Stos-Gale, S., and Gale, N. (2000). The circulation of copper in the Early Bronze Age in mainland Greece: The lead isotope evidence from Lerna, Lithares and Tsoungiza. In Pare, C. F. E. (ed.), Metals Make the World Go Round: The Supply and Circulation of Metals in Bronze Age Europe, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 39–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karageorghis, V. (1958). Finds from Early Cypriot cemeteries. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1940–1948 (1958): 115–152.

  • Karageorghis, V. (1960). Chronique des fouilles et découvertes archéologiques à Chypre en 1959. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 84: 242–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karageorghis, V. (1974). Excavations at Kition I, The Tombs, Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karageorghis, V. (2017). A White Painted ware pyxis from Pyrgos-Mavrorachi. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus (2011–2012) 2017: 365–372.

  • Kassianidou, V. (2008). The formative years of the Cypriot copper industry. In Tzachili, I. (ed.), Aegean Metallurgy in the Bronze Age, Ta Pragmata, Athens, pp. 249–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.). (2019). New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

  • Keswani, P. S. (1989). Dimensions of social hierarchy in Late Bronze Age Cyprus: An analysis of the mortuary data from Enkomi. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 2: 49–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keswani, P. S. (2004). Mortuary Ritual and Society in Bronze Age Cyprus, Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 9, Equinox, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keswani, P. S. (2005). Death, prestige, and copper in Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 109: 341–401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keswani, P. S. (2013). Burial practices in 3rd millennium Cyprus: A chronological overview. In Peltenburg, E. (ed.), Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean II: Cyprus, Brepols, Turnhout, Belgium, pp. 161–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keswani, P. S., and Knapp, A. B. (2003). Bronze Age boundaries and social exchange in north-west Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22: 213–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitchen, K. A. (2009). Alas(h)i(y)a (Irs) and Asiya (Isy) in ancient Egyptian sources. In Michaelides, D., Kassianidou, V., and Merrillees, R. S. (eds.), Egypt and Cyprus in Antiquity, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 2–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinge, J., and Fall, P. (2010). Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2622–2629.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (1990). Production, location and integration in Bronze Age Cyprus. Current Anthropology 31: 147–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (1993). Social complexity: Incipience, emergence and development on prehistoric Cyprus. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 292: 85–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (1994). Emergence, development and decline on Bronze Age Cyprus. In Mathers, C., and Stoddart, S. (eds.), Development and Decline in the Mediterranean Bronze Age, Sheffield Archaeological Monograph 8, John Collis Publications, Sheffield, pp. 271–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (ed.) (1996). Near Eastern and Aegean Texts from the Third to the First Millennia BC, Sources for the History of Cyprus 2, Greece/Cyprus Research Center, Altamont, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2008). Identity, Insularity and Connectivity: Prehistoric and Protohistoric Cyprus, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2013a). Revolution within evolution: The emergence of a ‘secondary state’ on Protohistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. Levant 45: 19–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2013b). The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2013c). The emergence of the state on prehistoric Cyprus: J. R. B. Stewart and V. Gordon Childe. In Knapp, A. B., Webb, J. M., and McCarthy, A. (eds.), J. R. B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139, Åström’s Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 109–119.

  • Knapp, A. B. (2018a). Seafaring and Seafarers in the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean, Sidestone Press, Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2018b). Wealth, inequality and complexity: Mortuary practices at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios. In Hulin, L., Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 7–19.

  • Knapp, A. B., and Demesticha, S. (2017). Mediterranean Connections: Maritime Transport Containers and Seaborne Trade in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, Routledge, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B., and Kassianidou, V. (2008). The archaeology of Late Bronze Age copper production: Politiko Phorades on Cyprus. In Yalçin, Ü. (ed.), Anatolian Metal 4: Frühe Rohstoffgewinnung in Anatolien und seinen Nachbarländern, Die Anschnitt, Beiheft 21, Veröffentlichungen aus dem Deutschen Bergbau-Museum 157, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, pp. 135–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohler, T. A., and Smith, M. E. (eds.) (2018). Ten Thousand Years of Inequality: The Archaeology of Wealth Differences, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohring, S. (2011). Social complexity as a multi-scalar concept: Pottery technologies, ‘communities of practice’ and the Bell Beaker phenomenon. Norwegian Archaeological Review 44: 145–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozal, E. (2005). Unpublished Middle and Late Cypriot pottery from Tarsus-Gözlükule. In Özyar, A., Field Seasons 2001–2003 of the Tarsus-Gözlükule Interdisciplinary Research Project, Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, pp. 135–144.

  • Kozal, E. (2017). Fremdes in Anatolien: Importgüter aus dem Ostmittelmeerraum und Mesopotamien als Indikator für spätbronzezeitlicher Handels- und Kulturkontakte, Schriften zur Vorderasiatischen Archäeologie 11, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristiansen, K., and Earle, T. K. (2015). Neolithic versus Bronze Age social formations: A political economy approach. In Kristiansen, K., Smejda, L., and Turek, J. (eds.), Paradigm Found: Archaeological Theory Past, Present and Future, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 234–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legarra Herrero, B. (2011). New kid on the block: The nature of the first systemic contacts between Crete and the eastern Mediterranean around 2000 BC. In Wilkinson, T., Sherratt, S., and Bennet, J. (eds), Interweaving Worlds: Systemic Interactions in Eurasia, 7th to 1st Millennia BC, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 266–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legarra Herrero, B. (2016). Primary state formation processes on Bronze Age Crete: A social approach to change in early complex societies. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 26: 349–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, K. M., Fogel, A. S., and Sneddon, A. (2018). Archaeological geophysical survey of a prehistoric Bronze Age site in Cyprus (Alambra Mouttes)—Applications and limitations. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 10: 1971–1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maguire, L. C. (2009). The Cypriot Pottery and Its Circulation in the Levant, Tell el-Dab’a 21, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 51, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maliszewski, D. (2018). Western Cyprus in the Bronze Age: Terra Inhabitata? Mediterranean World Archaeology 3, Creator Publishing House, Warsaw.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmgren, K. (2003). Klavdhia-Tremithos: A Middle and Late Cypriote Bronze Age Site, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology Pocket-book 159, Paul Åströms Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manginis, G., and Vavouranakis, G. (2004). Excavations at the Middle Cypriot site Avdhimou-Kamares II (in Greek). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2004: 93–147.

  • Manning, S. W. (1993). Prestige, distinction and competition: The anatomy of socioeconomic complexity in 4th–2nd millennium BCE Cyprus. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 292: 35–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, S.W. (1997). Cultural change in the Aegean c. 2200 BC. In Dalfes, H. N., Kukla, G., and Weiss, H. (eds.), Third Millennium BC Climate Change and Old World Collapse, NATO ASI Series I vol. 49, Springer, Berlin, pp. 149–171.

  • Manning, S. W. (2013). A new radiocarbon chronology for prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus. In Knapp, A. B., The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 485–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, S. W. (2014a). A radiocarbon-based chronology for the Chalcolithic through Middle Bronze Age of Cyprus (as of AD 2012). In Höflmayer, F., and Eichmann, R. (eds.), Egypt and the Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age, Orient-Archäologie 31, Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden, Germany, pp. 207–240.

  • Manning, S. W. (2014b). Timings and gaps in the early history of Cyprus and its copper trade—What these might tell us. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 23–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, S. W. (2017). Comments on climate, inter-regional variations, chronology, the 2200 BC horizon of change in the east Mediterranean region, and socio-political change on Crete. In Höflmayer, F. (ed.), The Late Third Millennium in the Ancient Near East: Chronology, C14, and Climate Change, Oriental Institute Seminars 11, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 451–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, S. W. (2018). The development of complex society on Crete: The balance between wider context and local agency. In Knodell, A. R., and Leppard, T. P. (eds.), Regional Approaches to Society and Complexity: Studies in Honor of John F. Cherry, Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 15, Equinox, Sheffield, pp. 29–58.

  • Manning, S. W. (2019). Environment and sociopolitical complexity on prehistoric Cyprus: Observations, trajectories, and sketch. In Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.), New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, pp. 99–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, S. W., Andreou, G. A, Fisher, K. D., Gerard-Little, P., Kearns, C., Leon, J. F., Sewell, D. A., and Urban, T. M. (2014). Becoming urban: Investigating the anatomy of the Late Bronze Age complex, Maroni, Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 27: 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcus, E. S. (2002). The southern Levant and maritime trade during the Middle Bronze IIA period. In Oren, E. D., and Ahituv, S. (eds.), Aharon Kempinski Memorial Volume: Studies in Archaeology and Related Disciplines, Beer-Sheva 15, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel, pp. 241–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcus, E. S. (2007). Amenemhet II and the sea: Maritime aspects of the Mit Rihana (Memphis) inscription. Ägypten und Levante 17: 138–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, A. (2014). Landscape resources and site longevity: Prasteio Mesorotos and the Dhiarizos Valley in prehistory. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 97–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrillees, R. S. (1968). The Cypriote Bronze Age Pottery Found in Egypt, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 18, Carl Bloms Boktryckeri A.-B., Lund, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrillees, R. S. (1979). Cyprus, the Cyclades and Crete in the Early to Middle Bronze Age. In Karageorghis, V. (ed.), The Relations Between Cyprus and Crete, ca. 2000–500 BC, Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 8–55.

  • Merrillees, R. S. (2007). The ethnic implications of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware for the history of the Middle to Late Bronze Age in Cyprus. Cahiers du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 37: 87–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrillees, R. S., and Tubb, J. N. (1979). A Syro/Cilician jug from Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1979: 223–229.

  • Monahan, E., and Spigelman, M. (2019). Negotiating a new landscape: Middle Bronze Age fortresses as a component of the Cypriot political landscape. In Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.), New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, pp. 133–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhly, J. D. (1986). The role of Cyprus in the economy of the eastern Mediterranean during the second millennium BC. In Karageorghis, V. (ed.), Cyprus between the Orient and the Occident, Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 45–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhly, J. D. (1989). The organisation of the copper industry in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In Peltenburg, E. J. (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 298–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhly, J. D. (2002). Early metallurgy in Greece and Cyprus. In Yalçin, Ü. (ed.), Anatolian Metal 2, Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 15, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, pp. 77–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myres, J. L. (1897). Excavations in Cyprus, 1894. Journal of Hellenic Studies 17: 134–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myres, J. L. (1946). Excavations in Cyprus, 1913: A Bronze Age cemetery at Lapithos. Annual of the British School at Athens 41: 78–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Negbi, O. (2005). Urbanism on Late Bronze Age Cyprus: LC II in retrospect. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 337: 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicolaou, I., and Nicolaou, K. (1988). The Dhenia ‘Kafkalla’ and ‘Mali’ tombs. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1988: 72–120.

  • Nicolaou, I., and Nicolaou, K. (1989). Kazaphani: A Middle/Late Cypriot Tomb at Kazaphani-Ayios Andronikos: T. 2A, B, Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.

  • Olsen, B. (2012). Archaeological theory, Christmas port and red herrings: Reply to comments. Current Swedish Archaeology 20: 95–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paraskeva, Ch. (2019). The Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age chronology of Cyprus: Refinements and reconstructions. In Kearns, C., and Manning, S. W. (eds.), New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, pp. 45–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paz, S., and Greenberg, R. (2016). Conceiving the city: Streets and incipient urbanism at Early Bronze Age Bet Yerah. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 29: 197–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltenburg, E. J. (1994). Constructing authority: The Vounous enclosure model. Opuscula Atheniensia 20: 157–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltenburg, E. J. (1996). From isolation to state formation in Cyprus, c. 3500–1500 BCE. In Karageorghis, V., and Michaelides, D. (eds.), The Development of the Cypriot Economy from the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, Bank of Cyprus and University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 17–44.

  • Peltenburg, E. J. (2008). Nitovikla and Tell el-Burak: Cypriot mid-second millennium BC forts in a Levantine context. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2008: 45–57.

  • Peltenburg, E., Bolger, D., and Crewe, L. (2019). Figurines Makers of Prehistoric Cyprus: Settlement and Cemeteries at Souskiou, Oxbow Books, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Philip, G. (1983). Kissonerga-Skalia ceramics. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1983: 46–53.

  • Pilides, D. (2014). Windows onto the Bronze Age of Nicosia: Another glimpse. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 151–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilides, D. (2017). The Ayios Sozomenos Excavations and Survey Project: Fortifying the current evidence. In Pilides, D., and Mina, M. (eds.), Four Decades of Hiatus in Archaeological Research in Cyprus: Towards Restoring the Balance, Studies on Ancient Cyprus 2, Holzhausen der Verlag, Vienna, pp. 154–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilides, D. (2018). The Agios Sozomenos Excavations and Survey Project: Results and preliminary inferences. In Hulin, L., Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 71–88.

  • Poursat, J.-C., and Loubet, M. (2005). Métallurgie et contacts extérieurs à Malia (Crète) au Minoen Moyen II: Remarques sur une série d’analyses isotopiques du plomb. In Laffineur, R., and Greco, E. (eds.), EMPORIA: Aegeans in the Eastern and Central Mediterranean, Aegaeum 25, Université de Liège, Liège, and University of Texas, Austin, pp. 117–121.

  • Price, T. D., and Feinman, G. (eds.) (2012). Pathways to Power: New Perspectives on the Emergence of Social Inequality, Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quack, J. F. (1996). Kftℨw and ‘lℨssy. Ägypten und Levante 6: 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raber, P. (1987). Early copper production in the Polis region, western Cyprus. Journal of Field Archaeology 14: 297–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redford, D. B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

  • Rowlands, M., and Ling, J. (2013). Boundaries, flows and connectivities: Mobility and stasis in the Bronze Age. In Bergerbrant, S., and Sabatini, S. (eds.), Counterpoint: Essays in Archaeology and Heritage: Studies in Honour of Professor Kristian Kristiansen, BAR International Series 2508, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 497–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, J. (2006). Ceramic imports of the Neopalatial and later Bronze Age eras. In Shaw, J. W., and Shaw, M. C. (eds.), Kommos V: The Monumental Minoan Buildings at Kommos, Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 646–688, 712–715.

  • Schoep, I. (2002). Social and political organization on Crete in the proto-palatial period: The case of Middle Minoan II Malia. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 15: 101–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shennan, S. J. (1986). Central Europe in the third millennium BC: An evolutionary trajectory for the beginning of the European Bronze Age. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5: 115–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherratt, A. G. (1981). Plough and pastoralism: Aspects of the secondary products revolution. In Hodder, I., Isaac, G., and Hammond, N. (eds.), Pattern of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 261–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimada, I. (ed.) (2007). Craft Production in Complex Societies: Multicraft and Producer Perspectives, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. S. (ed.) (2008). Views from Phlamoudhi, Cyprus, Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 63, American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneddon, A. C. (2002). The Cemeteries at Marki: Using a Looted Landscape to Investigate Prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus, BAR International Series 1028, Archaeopress, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneddon, A. C. (2014). Making love not war? An archaeology of violence and some lessons for the study of prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneddon, A. C. (2015). Revisiting Alambra Mouttes: Defining the spatial configuration and social relations of a prehistoric Bronze Age settlement in Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 28: 141–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sneddon, A. C. (2019). An analog from the prehistoric Bronze Age site of Alambra Mouttes (Cyprus) for adornments on the enigmatic ‘Vounous Bowl.’ Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 382: 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spigelman, M. (2006). Investigating the faunal record from Bronze Age Cyprus: Diversification and intensification. In McCarthy, A. (ed.), Island Dialogues: Cyprus in the Mediterranean Network, University of Edinburgh Archaeology, Occasional Paper 21, Edinburgh, pp. 119–129. Online: https://www.academia.edu/544988/9_Investigating_the_Faunal_Record_from_Bronze_Age_Cyprus_Diversification_and_Intensification.

  • Stager, L. E. (2001). Port power in the Early and Middle Bronze Ages: The organization of maritime trade and hinterland production. In Wolff, S. R. (ed.), Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighboring Lands in Memory of Douglas L. Esse, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 59, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 625–638.

  • Stech, T. (1985). Copper and society in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In Knapp, A. B., and Stech, T. (eds.), Prehistoric Production and Exchange: The Aegean and East Mediterranean, Monograph 25, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 100–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steel, L. (2004). Cyprus Before History: From the Earliest Settlers to the End of the Bronze Age, Bloomsbury Academic, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steel, L. (2013). The social world of Early–Middle Bronze Age Cyprus: Rethinking the Vounous Bowl. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 26: 51–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, A. (2016). The Egyptian predynastic and state formation. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J. R. (1962). The Early Cypriote Bronze Age. In Dikaios, P., and Stewart, J. R., Swedish Cyprus Expedition IV.1A, Swedish Cyprus Expedition, Lund, Sweden, pp. 205–401.

  • Stewart, E., and Stewart, J. R. (1950). Vounous 1937–38, Skrifter Utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Rom 14, Lund, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockhammer, P. (2012). Performing the practice turn in archaeology. Transcultural Studies 2012.1: 7–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stos-Gale, Z. A. (2016). Bronze Age metal sources and the movement of metals between the Aegean and Anatolia. In Bartelheim, M., Horejs, B., and Krauss, R. (eds.), Von Baden bis Troia: Ressourcennutzung, Metallurgie und Wissenstransfer: Eine Jubiläumsschrift für Ernst Pernicka, Oriental and European Archaeology 3, Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden, Germany, pp. 375–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stos-Gale, Z., and Gale, N. H. (1994). Metals. In Knapp, A. B., and Cherry, J. F. (eds.), Provenience Studies and Bronze Age Cyprus: Production, Exchange and Politico-Economic Change, Monographs in World Archaeology 21, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 92–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stos-Gale, Z., and Gale, N. H. (2003). Lead isotopic and other isotopic research in the Aegean. In Foster, K. P., and Laffineur, R. (eds.), METRON: Measuring the Aegean Bronze Age, Aegaeum 24, Université de Liège, Liège, and University of Texas, Austin, pp. 83–100.

  • Swiny, S. (1982). Correlations between the composition and function of Bronze Age metal types in Cyprus. In Muhly, J. D., Maddin, R., and Karageorghis, V. (eds.), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, Pierides Foundation, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 69–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swiny, S. (1986). The Kent State University Expedition to Episkopi Phaneromeni: Part 2, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 74.2, Paul Åströms Förlag, Göteborg, Sweden.

  • Swiny, S. (1989). From round house to duplex: A reassessment of prehistoric Bronze Age Cypriot society. In Peltenburg, E. J. (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 14–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swiny, S., and Mavromatis, C. (2000). Land behind Kourion: Results of the 1997 Sotira Archaeological Project Survey. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 2000: 433–452.

  • Todd, I. A. (1986). Vasilikos Valley Project 1, The Bronze Age Cemetery in Kalavasos Village, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.1, Paul Åströms Förlag, Göteborg, Sweden.

  • Todd, I. A. (1993). Kalavasos-Laroumena: Test excavation of a Middle Bronze Age settlement. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1993: 80–96.

  • Todd, I. A. (2007). Vasilikos Valley Project 11: Kalavasos Village Tombs 52–79, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.12, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden.

  • Todd, I. A. (2013). Vasilikos Valley Project 12: The Field Survey of the Vasilikos Valley Volume II: Human Settlement in the Vasilikos Valley, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.12, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden.

  • Todd, I. A., and Pearlman, D. (2007). Tombs in the Panayia church area. In Todd, I. A., Vasilikos Valley Project 11: Kalavasos Village Tombs 52–79, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.12, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden, pp. 4–25.

  • Tucker, K., and Cleggett, S. (2007). Human remains from Tomb 789. In Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M., The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Deneia in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 135, Paul Åströms Förlag, Sävedalen, Sweden, pp. 131–136.

  • Vavouranakis, G., and Manginis, G. (1995). Excavations at the Middle Cypriot site Avdhimou-Kamares (in Greek). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 1995: 67–94.

  • Vilain, S. (2015). Pour une archéologie des échanges en Méditerranée orientale: La céramique chypriote au Levant nord aux ages du Bronze moyen et du Bronze recent, Ph.D. dissertation, École doctorale Sciences humaines et sociales – Perspectives européennes, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg.

  • Violaris, Y., Sciré Calabrisotto, C., Fedi, M., Caforio, L., and Bombardieri, L. (2013). The Bronze Age cemetery at Lofou-Koulauzou (Cyprus): Towards a cross-analysis of radiocarbon data and funerary assemblages from burial contexts. In Bombardieri, L., D’Agostino, A., Guarducci, G., Orsi, V., and Valentini, S. (eds.), SOMA 2012: Identity and Connectivity, Volume I, BAR International Series 2581.1, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 331–343.

  • Wachsmann, S. (1998). Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant, Texas A&M University Press, College Station.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (1999). Ritual Architecture, Iconography and Practice in the Late Cypriote Bronze Age, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature Pocket-book 75, Paul Åström’s Förlag, Jonsered, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2010). The ceramic industry of Deneia: Crafting community and place in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. In Bolger, D. L., and Maguire, L. (eds.), The Development of Pre-state Communities in the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honour of Edgar Peltenburg, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 174–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2012). Kalopsidha: Forty-six years after SIMA volume 2. In Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (eds.), Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology: Fifty Years On, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 137, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 49–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2013a). Changing technological and social environments in the second half of the third millennium BCE in Cyprus. In Frankel, D., Webb, J. M., and Lawrence, S. (eds.), Archaeology in Environment and Technology: Intersections and Transformations, Routledge, New York, pp. 135–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2013b). ‘The mantle of Vasilia’: Have Stewart’s views on the centrality of the copper trade in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus stood the test of time? In Knapp, A. B., Webb, J. M., and McCarthy, A. (eds.), J. R. B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 59–71.

  • Webb, J. M. (2014a). Cyprus in the Early Bronze Age. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (c. 8000–332 BCE), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 347–360.

  • Webb, J. M. (2014b). Pottery production and distribution in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: The long road from measurement to meaning. In Webb, J. M. (ed.), Structure, Measurement and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 213–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2015). Identifying stone tools used in mining, smelting, and casting in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus, Journal of Field Archaeology 40: 22–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2016). Lapithos revisited: A fresh look at a key Middle Bronze Age site in Cyprus. In Bourogiannis, G., and Mühlenbock, C. (eds.), Ancient Cyprus Today: Museum Collections and New Research, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 184, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2017a). Vounoi (Vounous) and Lapithos in the Early and Middle Bronze Age: A reappraisal of the central north coast of Cyprus in the light of fieldwork and research undertaken since 1974. In Pilides, D., and Mina, M. (eds.), Four Decades of Hiatus in Archaeological Research in Cyprus: Towards Restoring the Balance, Studies on Ancient Cyprus 2, Holzhausen der Verlag, Vienna, pp. 128–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2017b). A west coast flask of Middle Cypriot date from Ampelikou: A note on a regional style and its chronology. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus (2011–2012) 2017: 373–391.

  • Webb, J. M. (2017c). The pottery. In Bombardieri, L., Erimi Laonin tou Porakou: A Middle Bronze Age Community in Cyprus: Excavations 2008–2014, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 145, Åström Editions, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 129–205.

  • Webb, J. M. (2017d). Lapithos Tomb 322: Voice, context and the archaeological record. In Minchin, E., and Jackson, H. (eds.), Text and the Material World: Essays in Honour of Graeme Clarke, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 185, Åström Editions, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2018a). Lapithos Tomb 201: A singular Middle Bronze Age burial assemblage. In Hulin, L., Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 35–52.

  • Webb, J. M. (2018b). Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba, Cyprus: Early and Middle Bronze Age Tombs Excavated by Menelaos Markides, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 148, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2018c). Spatial and social discontinuities in burial practice and the privatisation of mortuary space in Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 31: 203–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2019a). Shifting centres: Site location and resource procurement on the north coast of Cyprus over the longue durée of the prehistoric Bronze Age. In Papantoniou, G., and Vionis, A. (eds.), Central Places and Un-central Landscapes: Political Economies and Natural Resources in the Longue Durée, Land Special Issue 7.2, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel, pp. 70–100.

  • Webb, J. M. (2019b). Socio-spatial discontinuities in burial ritual in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. In Papantoniou, G., Morris, C., and Vionis, A. (eds.), Unlocking Sacred Landscapes: Spatial Analysis of Ritual and Cult in the Mediterranean, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 151, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 171–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2020). Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba, Cyprus: Early and Middle Bronze Age Tombs Excavated in 1913: Tombs 1–47, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 152, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2021). Cyprus’ external connections in the prehistoric Bronze Age. In Manning, S. W. (ed.), Critical Approaches to the Archaeology of Cyprus and the Wider Mediterranean, Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 16, Equinox, Sheffield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (1999). Characterizing the Philia facies: Material culture, chronology, and the origin of the Bronze Age in Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 103: 3–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2004). Intensive site survey: Implications for estimating settlement size, population and duration in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. In Iacovou, M. (ed.), Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials, British School at Athens Studies 11, British School at Athens, London, pp. 125–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2007). Identifying population movements by everyday practice: The case of third millennium Cyprus. In Antoniadou, S., and Pace, A. (eds.), Mediterranean Crossroads, Pierides Foundation, Athens, pp. 189–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2010). Social strategies, ritual and cosmology in Early Bronze Age Cyprus: An investigation of burial data from the north coast. Levant 42: 185–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2013a). Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117: 59–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2013b). Ambelikou Aletri: Metallurgy and Pottery Production in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 138, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2015). Coincident biographies: Bent and broken blades in Bronze Age Cyprus. In Harrell, K., and Driessen, J. (eds.), Damaged Goods: Contextualising Intentional Destruction of Objects in the Bronze Age Aegean and Cyprus, Aegis 9, Presses Universitaires de Louvain, Louvain, Belgium, pp. 117–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., Frankel, D., Stos, Z. A., and Gale, N. (2006). Early Bronze Age metal trade in the eastern Mediterranean: New compositional and lead isotope evidence from Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25: 261–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., Frankel, D., Eriksson, K., and Hennessy, J. B. (2009). The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Karmi Palealona and Lapatsa in Cyprus: Excavations by J. R. B. Stewart, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 136, Paul Åströms Förlag, Göteborg, Sweden.

  • Weinberg, S. (1956). Exploring the Early Bronze Age in Cyprus. Archaeology 9: 112–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitelaw, T. (2018). Recognising polities in prehistoric Crete. In Relaki, M., and Papadatos, Y. (eds.), From the Foundations to the Legacy of Minoan Archaeology: Studies in Honour of Professor Keith Branigan, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 210-255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. C. (2004). The emergence of leadership and the rise of civilization in the Aegean. In Barrett, J. C., and Halstead, P. (eds.), The Emergence of Civilisation Revisited, Sheffield Studies in Aegean Archaeology 6, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 64–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasur-Landau, A. (2018). The Middle Bronze Age Canaanite city as a domesticating apparatus. In Yasur-Landau, A., Cline, E. H., and Rowan, Y. M. (eds.), The Social Archaeology of the Levant: From Prehistory to the Present, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 224–244.

    Google Scholar 

Bibliography of Recent Literature

  • Amadio, M. (2018). From deposits to social practices: Integrated micromorphological analysis of floor sequences at Middle Bronze Age Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou, Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 21: 433–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amadio, M., and Bombardieri, L. (2019). Abandonment processes at Middle Bronze Age Erimi: A multi-scalar approach. Antiquity 93: 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L. (2019). Mill-songs: The soundscape of collective grinding in the Bronze and Iron Age Near East and eastern Mediterranean. In Squitieri, A., and Eitam, D. (eds.), Stone Tools in the Ancient Near East and Egypt: Ground Stone Tools, Rock-cut Installations and Stone Vessels from Prehistory to Late Antiquity, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 71–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L., and Muti, G. (2018). Erimi Laonin tou Porakou: A textile community of practice in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Fasciculi Archaeologiae Historicae 31: 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L., and Muti, G. (2019). To weave or not to weave? Textile production and the development of a technological habitus in Cypriot prehistory. Origini 41: 25–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L., Chelazzi, F., and Amadio, M. (2015). Working with water: Procurement, consumption and water-based working activities at Middle Bronze Age Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou (2009–2011 seasons). In Hadjikyriakos, I., and Trentin, M. G. (eds.), Cypriot Cultural Details, Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 111–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L., Graziadio, G., and Jasink, A. M. (eds.) (2015). Preistoria e protostoria egea e cipriota: Periploi-Collana di studi egei e ciprioti 6, Manuali Umanistica 12, Firenze University Press, Florence, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bombardieri, L., Scirè Calabrisotto, C., Chelazzi, F., and Amadio, M. (2018). Little big data: On-going archaeological science-based researches at Bronze Age Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou. Archaeologia Cypria 7: 69–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chelazzi, F. (2020). From self-sufficiency to interdependence: Changes in the Cypriot socio-economic structure in the light of mobility during the second millennium BC. In Gibson, C., Frieman, C., and Cleary, K. (eds.), Making Journeys: Archaeologies of Movement, Oxbow, Oxford, in press.

  • Crist, W. (2019). Playing against complexity: Board games as social strategy in Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 55: 101078.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demesticha, S., and Knapp, A. B. (eds.) (2016). Maritime Transport Containers in the Bronze–Iron Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature PB 183, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dikomitou-Eliadou, M. (2019). A preliminary compositional study of Early and Middle Bronze Age pottery from Lapithos. In Papanikola-Bakirtzi, D. (ed.), Ceramic Art from the Soil of Lapithos, The Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia, Municipality of Lapithos, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 57–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, S. E., Monahan, E. M., and Fall, P. L. (2014). A stone plank figurine from Politiko-Troullia, Cyprus: Potential implications for inferring Bronze Age communal behaviour. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 371: 3–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fall, P., and Klinge, J. (2010). Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2622–2629.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fall, P., Ridder, E., and Galetti C. (2012). Long-term agrarian landscapes in the Troodos foothills, Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 2335–2347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2012). Pottery production and distribution in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: An application of pXRF analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 1380–1387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., and Webb, J. M. (2014). A potter’s workshop from Middle Bronze Age Cyprus: New light on production context, scale and variability. Antiquity 88: 425–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, A. (ed.) (2012). Cyprus: An Island Culture: Society and Social Relations from the Bronze Age to the Venetian Period, Oxbow, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goude, G., Clarke, J., Webb, J. M., Frankel, D., Georgiou, G., Herscher E., and Lorentz, K. (2018). Exploring the potential of human bone and teeth collagen from the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age in Cyprus for isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 22: 115–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hein, I. (ed.) (2009). The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium BC Studies in Regionalism during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 20, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 52, Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keswani, P. (2018). On the relationship between modes of agricultural production and social inequality in Bronze Age Kalavasos: A theoretical essay. In Hulin, L. Crewe, L., and Webb, J. M. (eds.), Structures of Inequality on Bronze Age Cyprus: Studies in Honour of Alison K. South, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 187, Åström Editions, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 139–154.

  • Knapp, A. B. (2014). Mediterranean archaeology and ethnicity. In McInerney, J. (ed.), A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean, Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 34–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, A. B. (2015). Prehistoric Cyprus: A ‘crossroads’ of interaction? In Lichtenberger, A., and von Rüden, C. (eds.), Multiple Mediterranean Realities: Current Approaches to Spaces, Resources, and Connectivities, Mittelmeerstudien 6, Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag and Fink-Verlag, Paderborn, Munich, pp. 17–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muti, G. (2017). Following the fil rouge: Productive, economic, and social aspects of textile dyeing in Middle and Late Cypriot communities. In Bombardieri, L., Amadio, M., and Dolcetti, F. (eds.), Ancient Cyprus, an Unexpected Journey: Communities in Continuity and Transition, Artemide, Rome, pp. 19–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltenburg, E. (2018). The entry of Cyprus into the circum-Aegean world and the growth of regionalism on the island. In Dietz, S., Mavridis, F., Tankosi, Z., and Takaolu, T. (eds.), Communities in Transition: The Circum-Aegean Area during the 5th and 4th Millennia BC, Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 20, Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 456–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltenburg, E. (ed.) (2013). Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean, Volume 2: Cyprus, ARCANE 2, Brepols, Turnhout, Belgium.

  • Scirè Calabrisotto, C., Bombardieri, L. Albertini, E., and Chelazzi, F. (2012). Dating the context (or contextualizing the dating?). New evidence from the Southern Cemetery at Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou (EC–LC I). Cahiers du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 41: 87–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steel, L. (2016). Kitchenalia in Bronze Age Cyprus. Gastronomica 16: 79–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steel, L. (2019). Watery entanglements in the Cypriot hinterland. In Papantoniou, G., and Vionis, A. (eds.), Central Places and Un-central Landscapes: Political Economies and Natural Resources in the Longue Durée, Land Special Issue 7.2, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel, pp. 101–116.

  • Turco, F., Davit, P., Chelazzi, F., Borghi, A., Bombardieri, L., and Operti, L. (2016). Characterization of late prehistoric plasters and mortars from Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou (Limassol, Cyprus). Archaeometry 58: 284–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2009). Deneia: A Middle Cypriot site in its regional and historical context. In Hein, I. (ed.), The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium BC: Studies in Regionalism during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 20, Series: Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie LII. Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, pp. 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2014). Ritual as the setting for contentious interaction: From social negotiation to institutionalised authority in Bronze Age Cyprus. In Knapp, A. B., and van Dommelen, P. (eds.), The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 619–634.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2016). Women at home and in the community in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. In Budin, S. L., and Turfa, J. M. (eds), Women in Antiquity: Real Women Across the Ancient World, Routledge, London, pp. 375–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J.M. (2016). The production and distribution of plank-shaped figurines in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus: The role of Lapithos. In Balandier, C., Imhaus, B., Raptou, E., and Yon, M. (eds.), Kypromedousa: Hommage à Jacqueline Karageorghis, Cahiers d’Études Chypriotes 45: 241–254.

  • Webb, J. M. (2017). Anthropomorphic figures from Middle Bronze Age Cyprus: Who or what do they represent? Iris: Journal of the Classical Association of Victoria New Series 29: 5–21.

  • Webb, J. M. (2017). Cattle in ritual practice and iconography in Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Greek Archaeology 2: 53–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M. (2019). Pottery production at Lapithos in the Early and Middle Bronze Age. In Papanikola-Bakirtzi, D. (ed.), Ceramic Art from the Soil of Lapithos, Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia, Municipality of Lapithos, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp. 41–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (2009). Exploiting a damaged and diminishing resource: Survey, sampling and society at a Bronze Age cemetery complex in Cyprus. Antiquity 83: 54–68.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Luca Bombardieri and Andrew Sneddon for their suggestions regarding the areal extent of the settlements at Erimi and Alambra, which helped ensure this paper is fully up to date. Bombardieri also kindly provided the image that appears as Fig. 6. We also acknowledge the influence of Sturt Manning’s recent paper (2019), which inspired us to collaborate and present a more elaborated, material picture of the entire Middle Cypriot period, in response to several of the points he raised. We also thank the editors of JARE and the referees (including Priscilla Keswani and David Frankel) for their perceptive comments on and critiques of an earlier draft of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Archaeology and History, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3086, Australia

    Jennifer M. Webb

  2. Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Jennifer M. Webb

  3. Archaeology, Department of Humanities, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland, UK

    A. Bernard Knapp

Authors
  1. Jennifer M. Webb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Bernard Knapp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jennifer M. Webb.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Webb, J.M., Knapp, A.B. Rethinking Middle Bronze Age Communities on Cyprus: “Egalitarian” and Isolated or Complex and Interconnected?. J Archaeol Res 29, 203–253 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-020-09148-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-020-09148-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation