Abstract
This study examined the relationship between perceived age discrimination and subjective well-being in middle and later life in a Canadian context. Data were drawn from the 2013 Canadian General Social Survey Public Use Microdata File (N = 15,759 aged 45 and older). Ordered logit regression analyses addressed the main and interactive effects of age and perceived age discrimination on self-reported mental health and life satisfaction. Our analyses revealed a negative association between perceived age discrimination and both outcome measures. In addition, middle-aged adults were found to be more vulnerable than older adults to the negative mental health and well-being implications of perceived age discrimination. However, in gender-stratified models, this finding was observed among both men and women for mental health but only among women for life satisfaction. From these findings, we conclude that perceived age discrimination appears to be a risk factor when it comes to mental health and life satisfaction in middle and later life and appears to be particularly problematic for the subjective well-being of middle-aged adults.
Résumé
Cette étude examine la relation entre la discrimination perçue selon l'âge et le bien-être subjectif au milieu et à la fin de la vie dans un contexte canadien. Les données utilisées proviennent du fichier à grande diffusion de l'Enquête sociale générale de 2013 (N = 15 759 personnes de 45 ans et plus). Les modèles de régression logistique démontrent les effets principaux et interactifs de l'âge et de la perception de la discrimination fondée sur l'âge sur la santé mentale et la satisfaction à l'égard de la vie autodéclarées. Nos analyses révèlent une association négative entre la discrimination perçue selon l'âge et les mesures d'évaluation utilisées. De plus, les adultes d'âge moyen se sont révélés plus vulnérables que les adultes plus âgés aux répercussions négatives sur la santé mentale et le bien-être en conséquence de la discrimination perçue selon l'âge. Cependant, dans les modèles stratifiés par genre, ce résultat est observé chez les hommes et les femmes pour la santé mentale, mais seulement chez les femmes pour la satisfaction à l'égard de la vie. À partir de ces résultats, nous concluons que la discrimination perçue selon l'âge semble être un facteur de risque en ce qui concerne la santé mentale et la satisfaction à l'égard de la vie au milieu et à la fin de la vie et semble particulièrement problématique pour le bien-être subjectif des adultes d'âge moyen.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Abrams, D., Russell, P. S., Vauclair, C.-M., & Swift, H. S. (2011). Ageism in Europe: findings from the European Social Survey. London, UK: Age UK. Retrieved from http://www.ageuk.org.uk/documents/en-gb/id10704ageism across Europe report interactive.pdf?dtrk_true.
Age UK. (2011). Grey matters - a survey of ageism across Europe: EU briefing and policy recommendations. London: Author. Retrieved from http://www.ageuk.org.uk/Documents/EN-GB/For-professionals/ageism_across_europe_report.pdf?dtrk_true
Allison, K. W. (1998). Stress and oppressed social category membership. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: the target’s perspective (pp. 145–170). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012679130-3/50042-9.
Almeida, D. M., & Horn, M. C. (2004). Is daily life more stressful during middle adulthood? In O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff, & R. C. Kessler (Eds.), How healthy are we? A national study of well-being at midlife (pp. 425–451). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/e316982004-001.
Avidor, S., Ayalon, L., Palgi, Y., & Bodner, E. (2017). Longitudinal associations between perceived age discrimination and subjective well-being: variations by age and subjective life expectancy. Aging & Mental Health, 21(7), 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1156050.
Ayalon, L. (2014). Perceived age, gender, and racial/ethnic discrimination in Europe: results from the European Social Survey. Educational Gerontology, 40, 499–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601277.2013.845490.
Ayalon, L. (2018). Perceived age discrimination: a precipitator or a consequence of depressive symptoms? Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73(5), 860–869. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw101.
Ayalon, L., & Gum, A. M. (2011). The relationships between major lifetime discrimination, everyday discrimination, and mental health in three racial and ethnic groups of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 15(5), 587–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2010.543664.
Bratt, C., Abrams, D., Swift, H. J., Vauclair, C., & Marques, S. (2018). Perceived age discrimination across age in Europe: from an ageing society to a society for all ages. Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000398.
Butler, R. N. (1969). Age-ism: another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist, 9(4), 243–246. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/9.4_part_1.243.
Butler, R. N. (1980). Ageism: a forward. Journal of Social Issues, 36(2), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1980.tb02018.x.
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.10.805.
Garstka, T. A., Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Hummert, M. L. (2004). How young and older adults differ in their responses to perceived age discrimination. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.326.
Gee, G. C., Pavalko, E. K., & Long, J. S. (2007). Age, cohort and perceived age discrimination: using the life course to assess self-reported age discrimination. Social Forces, 86(1), 265–290. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2007.0098.
Giasson, H. L., Queen, T. L., Larkina, M., & Smith, J. (2017). Age group differences in perceived age discrimination: associations with self-perceptions of aging. The Gerontologist, 57(Suppl_2), S160–S168. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx070.
Godley, J. (2018). Everyday discrimination in Canada: prevalence and patterns. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 43(2), 111–142. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjs29346.
Guindon, S., & Cappeliez, P. (2010). Contributions of psychological well-being and social support to an integrative model of subjective health in later adulthood. Ageing International, 35, 38–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-009-9050-7.
Han, J., & Richardson, V. E. (2015). The relationships among perceived discrimination, self-perceptions of aging, and depressive symptoms: a longitudinal examination of age discrimination. Aging & Mental Health, 19(8), 747–755. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.962007.
Headey, B., Kelley, J., & Wearing, A. (1993). Dimensions of mental health: life satisfaction, positive affect, anxiety and depression. Social Indicators Research, 29, 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01136197.
Hnilica, K. (2011). Discrimination and subjective well-being: protective influences of membership in a discriminated category. Central European Journal of Public Health, 19(1), 3–6. https://doi.org/10.21101/cejph.a3608.
Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 49, 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/49.5.p240.
Hyman, I., O’Campo, P., Ansara, D. L., Siddiqi, A., Forte, T., Smylie, J., Mahabir, D. F., & McKenzie, K. (2019). Prevalence and predictors of everyday discrimination in Canada: findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Toronto: Wellesley Institute. Retrieved from https://www.wellesleyinstitute.com/publications/prevalence-and-predictors-of-everyday-discrimination-in-canada-findings-from-the-canadian-community-health-survey/ (April 2, 2020).
Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230. https://doi.org/10.2307/2676349.
Kite, M. E., Stockdale, G. D., Whitley, B. E., & Johnson, B. T. (2005). Attitudes toward younger and older adults: an updated meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 241–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00404.x.
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kunkel, S. R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261.
Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data (2nd ed.). Hoboken: New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119013563.
Lombardo, P., Jones, W., Wang, L., Shen, X., & Goldner, E. M. (2018). The fundamental association between mental health and life satisfaction: results from successive waves of a Canadian national survey. BMC Public Health, 18, 342. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5235-x.
Luo, Y., Xu, J., Granberg, E., & Wentworth, W. M. (2012). A longitudinal study of social status, perceived discrimination, and physical and emotional health among older adults. Research on Aging, 27(6), 275–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027511426151.
Lyons, A., Alba, B. V., Heywood, W., Fileborn, B., Minichiello, V., Barrett, C., Hinchliff, S., Malta, S., & Dow, B. (2017). Experiences of ageism and the mental health of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 22(11), 1456–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1364347.
Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 38–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137286.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v04n03ç01.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1989). Social causes of psychological distress. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315129464.
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart, R. L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059.
Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241–256. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136956.
Pearlin, L. I. (1999). The stress process revisited: reflections on concepts and their interrelationships. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 395–415). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-36223-1_19.
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136676.
Richman, L. S., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2014). A multilevel analysis of stigma and health: implications for research and policy. Policy Insights From the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732214548862.
Rippon, I., Kneale, D., de Oliveira, C., Demakakos, P., & Steptoe, A. (2014). Perceived age discrimination in older adults. Age and Ageing, 43, 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/aft146.
Rippon, I., Zaninotto, P., & Steptoe, A. (2015). Greater perceived age discrimination in England than the United States: results from HRS and ELSA. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70, 925–933. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv040.
Rothermund, K. (2005). Effects of age stereotypes on self-views and adaptation. In W. Greve, K. Rothermund, & D. Wentura (Eds.), The adaptive self: personal continuity and intentional self-development (pp. 223–242). Ashland, OH: Hogrefe & Huber.
Rothermund, K., & Brandtstadter, J. (2003). Age stereotypes and self-views in later life: evaluating rival assumptions. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 549–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000208.
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948.
Shippee, T. P., Wilkinson, L. R., Schafer, M. H., & Shippee, N. D. (2017). Long-term effects of age discrimination on mental health: the role of perceived financial strain. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 74(4), 664–674. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx017.
Statistics Canada. (2013). General Social Survey – cycle 27: social identity. Cat. No. 89M0032X. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Sutin, A. R., Stephan, Y., Carretta, H., & Terracciano, A. (2015). Perceived discrimination and physical, cognitive, and emotional health in older adulthood. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(2), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.03.007.
Thoits, P. A. (2010). Stress and health: major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(suppl), S41–S53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383499.
van den Heuvel, W. J., & van Santvoort, M. M. (2011). Experienced discrimination amongst European old citizens. European Journal of Ageing, 8(4), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-011-0206-4.
Warttig, S. L., Forshaw, M. J., South, J., & White, A. K. (2013). New, normative, English-sample data for the Short Form Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4). Journal of Health Psychology, 18(12), 1617–1628. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105313508346.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539700200305.
Yang, Y. (2007). Is old age depressing? Growth trajectories and cohort variations in late-life depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(1), 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650704800102.
Yuan, A. S. V. (2007). Perceived age discrimination and mental health. Social Forces, 86, 291–311. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2007.0113.
Funding
This study was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant number 435-2018-0262).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Author notes
Zheng Wu recently passed away. This paper is dedicated to his memory.
- Zheng Wu
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
This study complied with the University of Victoria’s Research Ethics Board, which does not require an internal institutional review for research projects using data in the public domain.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Browning, S.D., Penning, M.J. & Wu, Z. Perceived Age Discrimination: Implications for Mental Health and Life Satisfaction in Middle and Later Life—a Research Note. Can. Stud. Popul. 47, 245–262 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42650-020-00035-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42650-020-00035-7