Abstract
Several years of surface wave observations in the Chukchi Sea reveal wave groups are a common feature in open water and ice-covered conditions. The strength of the groupiness, here characterized by the group factor, is well correlated with the characteristic wave steepness, the spectral bandwidth, and the Benjamin-Feir Index. The general finding is enhanced groupiness in ice. However, the trends with wave characteristics are opposite from ice to open water, and suggest different mechanisms. In ice, groupiness increases with decreasing steepness, increasing bandwidth, and decreasing Benjamin-Feir Index. In open water, the trends indicate that both linear superposition of phase-coherent waves and nonlinear behaviour are important for the generation of wave groups. We hypothesize that in ice-covered conditions, directional spreading reduces the effective bandwidth in the dominant wave direction, possibly due to modified four-wave nonlinear transfer spreading high-frequency energy to lateral directions. This reduced effective bandwidth is then conducive to enhanced group formation by linear superposition. However, an increased high-frequency noise floor of the in-ice observations would also be consistent with the observed increase in omni-directional bandwidth. Without directional measurements, neither of these two processes can be favoured with certainty.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Banner ML, Pierson WL (2007) Wave breaking onset and strength for two-dimensional deep water wave groups. J. Fluid Mech. 585:93–115
Benjamin TB, Feir J (1967) The disintegration of wave trains on deep water part 1. J. Fluid Mech. 27(03):417–430
Cheng S, et al. (2017) Calibrating a viscoelastic sea ice model for wave propagation in the arctic fall marginal ice zone. Journal of Geophysical research: Oceans 122:n/a–n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013275
Collins CO, Rogers WE, Marchenko A, Babanin AV (2015) In situ measurements of an energetic wave event in the arctic marginal ice zone. Geophysical Research Letters, pp n/a–n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063063
Collins CO, Rogers WE, Lund B (2017) An investigation into the dispersion of ocean surface waves in sea ice. Ocean Dynamics 67:263–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-016-1021-4
DIWASP DIWASP (2012) A directional wave spectra toolbox for MATLAB: user manual. Research report WP-1601-DJ, Tech. rep., Centre for Water Research, University of Western Australia
Elgar S, Guza RT, Seymour RJ (1984) Groups of waves in shallow water. J Geophys. Res. 89(C3):3623–3634
Fissel D, Marko J, Melling H (2008) Advances in upward looking sonar technology for studying the processes of change in arctic ocean ice climate. Journal of Operational Oceanography 1(1):9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876x.2008.11081884
Francis OP, Panteleev GG, Atkinson DE (2011) Ocean wave conditions in the Chukchi Sea from satellite and in situ observations. Geophys Res Lett, 38(L24610), 5pp. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049839
Funke ER, Mansard EPD (1980) On the synthesis of realistic sea states.. In: Proceedings of the international conference on coastal engineering, pp 2974–2991
Gemmrich J, Thomson J (2017) Observations of the shape and group dynamics of rogue waves. Geophysical Research Letters 44(4):1823–1830. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072398
Liu AK, Mollo-Christensen E (1988) Wave propagation in a solid ice pack. J Phys Oceanogr 18(11):1702–1712
Liu Q, Babanin AV, Zieger S, Young IR, Guan C (2016) Wind and wave climate in the arctic ocean as observed by altimeters. Journal of Climate 29(22):7957–7975. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0219.1
Longuet-Higgins MS (1984) Statistical properties of wave groups in a random sea state. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A 312:219–250
Melling H, Johnston PH, Riedel DA (1995) Measurements of the underside topography of sea ice by moored subsea sonar. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 12 (3):589–602. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1995)012⟨0589:motuto⟩2.0.co;2
Meylan MH, Bennetts LG, Mosig JEM, Rogers WE, Doble MJ, Peter MA (2018) Dispersion relations, power laws, and energy loss for waves in the marginal ice zone. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 123(5):3322–3335. https://doi.org/10.1002/2018JC013776
Montiel F, Squire VA, Doble M, Thomson J, Wadhams P (2018) Attenuation and directional spreading of ocean waves during a storm event in the autumn Beaufort Sea marginal ice zone. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 0(0):5912–5932. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC013763
Polnikov VG, Lavrenov IV (2007) Calculation of the nonlinear energy transfer through the wave spectrum at the sea surface covered with broken ice. Oceanology 47(3):363–373. https://doi.org/10.1134/s0001437007030058
Rogers WE, Thomson J, Shen HH, Doble MJ, Wadhams P, Cheng S (2016) Dissipation of wind waves by pancake and frazil ice in the autumn Beaufort Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 121(11):7991–8007. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012251
Saulnier J-B, Clément A, de O. Falcão AF, Pontes T, Prevosto M, Ricci P (2011) Wave groupiness and spectral bandwidth as relevant parameters for the performance assessment of wave energy converters. Ocean Engineering 38(1):130–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2010.10.002
Serreze MC, Crawford AD, Stroeve JC, Barrett AP, Woodgate RA (2016) Variability, trends, and predictability of seasonal sea ice retreat and advance in the Chukchi Sea. Journal of Geophysical research: oceans, pp n/a–n/a
Shcherbina AY, McNeil CL, Baptista AM (2016) Model-aided lagrangian interpretation of non-synoptic estuarine observations. Limnology and oceanography: methods, pp. n/a–n/a
Shen HH, Squire VA (1998) Wave damping in compact pancake ice fields due to interactions between pancakes. Antaractic research series 74:325–341
Squire VA, Dugan JP, Wadhams P, Rottier PJ, Liu AK (1995) Of ocean waves and sea ice. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 27(1):115–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fl.27.010195.000555
Sullivan PP, Banner ML, Morison RP, Peirson WL (2018) Turbulent flow over steep steady and unsteady waves under strong wind forcing. Journal of Physical Oceanography 48 (1):3–27. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-17-0118.1
Sutherland P, Gascard J-C (2016) Airborne remote sensing of ocean wave directional wavenumber spectra in the marginal ice zone. Geophysical Research Letters, 43(10). https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl067713
Thomson J, Gemmrich J, Rogers WE, Collins CO, Ardhuin F (2019) Wave groups observed in pancake sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 124(11):7400–7411. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019jc015354
Thomson J, et al (2016) Emerging trends in the sea state of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. Ocean Modelling 105:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2016.02.009
van den Bremer TS, Taylor PH (2015) Estimates of Lagrangian transport by surface gravity wave groups: the effects of finite depth and directionality. Journal of Geophysical research: Oceans. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC010712
Wang XL, Feng Y, Swail VR, Cox A (2015) Historical changes in the Beaufort-Chukchi-Bering Seas surface winds and waves. 1971–2013, Journal of Climate
Young I (1995) The determination of confidence limits associated with estimates of the spectral peak frequency. Ocean Engineering 22(7):669–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-8018(95)00002-3
Acknowledgements
The data were originally collected for Shell Exploration and Production as part of the Chukchi Sea Environmental Studies Program. We thank Keath Borg (ASL) for support in the initial IPS data processing and providing high-resolution ice draft statistics.
Funding
Funding was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada (NSERC) as part of the ENGAGE program.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Amin Chabchoub
This article is part of the Topical Collection on the 16th International Workshop on Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting in Melbourne, AU, November 10-15, 2019
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gemmrich, J., Mudge, T. & Thomson, J. Long-term observations of the group structure of surface waves in ice. Ocean Dynamics 71, 343–356 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-020-01424-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-020-01424-x