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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2020
The present article is a study of provincial administration in the nineteenth-century Ottoman Albania and Kurdistan. It examines the transformation of provincial administration in Dibra and Hazro after two towns’ hereditary rulers were exiled. Focusing on the employment patterns of the notables in exile as well as the ones who occupied the posts in the absence of the former, this study challenges the binary framework mostly employed in conceptualizing the making of the modern Ottoman state. Particularly, the employment of the notables exiled to the distant parts of the empire necessitates a revision in the presumptions about the origins of appointed Ottoman officials. By focusing on the partnership operating by means of employment, this study argues that the making of Ottoman state follows a trajectory of flexible centralization based on the partnership between the government and notables, terms of which were constantly negotiated.
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2 BOA, HAT. 453/22435-A, 5 Zilkade 1250 (5 March 1835).
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21 For emphasis on locality, see Jens Hanssen, “Practices of Integration: Center-Periphery Relations in the Ottoman Empire,” in Hanssen, Philipp, and Weber, Empire in the City, 153.
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30 Aydın and Verheij, “Confusion in the Cauldron,” 22; Elsie, Tribes of Albania, 303.
31 Even though it is beyond the scope of this study, Hasluck claims that there were no bajraks (standards) before the Ottoman role. In a similar way, Özoğlu underlines that some Kurdish emirates seem to be state creations. Hasluck, Unwritten Law, 128; Özoğlu, Hakan, Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004), 54Google Scholar.
32 Reinkowski, Maurus, Die Dinge der Ordnung: Eine vergleichende Untersuchung über die osmanische Reformpolitik im 19. Jahrhundert (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2005), 269–73Google Scholar. For yurtluk-ocaklıks, see Göyünç, Nejat, “Yurtluk-Ocaklık Deyimleri Hakkında,” in Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu'na Armağan (Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi, 1991), 269–77Google Scholar.
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34 For a brilliant decentered elaboration of “Ottomanness,” see Aymes, Provincial History, 40–52.
35 For a similar consolidation of transregional households in the early 19th century, see Philliou, Biography of an Empire, 32–34.
36 Philliou, Christine, “Mischief in the Old Regime: Provincial Dragomans and Social Change at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century,” New Perspectives on Turkey 25 (2001): 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Esmer, “Economies of Violence,” 196; Aymes, Provincial History, 167.
37 Aymes, Provincial History, 52; Bouquet, “Is It Time?” 64.
38 For brief information about Ottoman Albania and Kurdistan on the eve of Tanzimat reforms, see Ippen, T., “Beitrage zur inneren Geschichte Albaniens im XIX. Jahrhundert,” in Illyrisch-albanische Forschungen, ed. Thallczy, L. (Munich-Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1916), 377–79Google Scholar Van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State, 175–82.
39 For exile as a capital punishment, see Heyd, Uriel, Studies in Old Ottoman Criminal Law (London: Clarendon Press, 1973), 303–4Google Scholar; Köksal, Yonca, “Coercion and Mediation: Centralization and Sedentarization of Tribes in the Ottoman Empire,” Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 3 (2006): 475CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
40 BOA, HAT. 453/22435-A, 5 Zilkade 1250 (5 March 1835); BOA, HAT. 1597/65, no date; BOA, C. DH. 85/4225, 29 Rabiulevvel 1252 (14 July 1836).
41 Bayraktar, Uğur Bahadır, “Periphery's Centre: Reform, Taxation, and Local Notables in Diyarbakir, 1845–1855,” in The Ottoman East in the Nineteenth Century: Societies, Identities and Politics, ed. Cora, Tolga Yaşar, Derderian, Dzovinar, and Sipahi, Ali (London: I. B. Tauris, 2016), 165–68Google Scholar.
42 BOA, HAT. 414/21464-A, 13 Receb 1251 (4 November 1835); BOA, HAT. 701/33728, no date. The Ottomans interchangeably called Peshkopi “Lower Dibra” and at times, together with Dibra, “Debreler” (the Dibras).
43 BOA, HAT. 634/31301 A, 23 Ramazan 1251 (12 January 1836); BOA, HAT. 405/21176, 7 Şevval 1251 (26 January 1836).
44 BOA, HAT. 420/21702 A, 29 Rabiulahir 1252 (13 August 1836).
45 Ibid.; BOA, C. ZB. 36/1786, 27 Rabiulahir 1254 (20 July 1838); BOA, MVL. 81/39, 25 Muharrem 1266 (11 December 1849).
46 BOA, HAT. 420/21702 A, 29 Rabiulahir 1252 (13 August 1836).
47 The mob's demand, in the phrasing of the Ottoman official, was “biz mütesellimi kendi içimizden isteriz haricden mütesellim ve zabıta istemeyiz”; BOA, HAT. 433/21996 A, 7 Ramazan 1254 (24 November 1838); BOA, HAT. 413/21453 B, 3 Zilkade 1254 (18 January 1839); BOA, HAT. 1247/48347 J, no date.
48 BOA, HAT. 408/21248 C, no date.
49 BOA, HAT. 413/21454 C, 5 Zilkade 1254 (20 January 1839); BOA, HAT. 1247/48347 B, no date.
50 BOA, HAT. 408/21251 F, 13 Cemaziyelevvel 1254 (4 August 1838).
51 Beshara Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700–1900 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), 148–49 (emphasis added).
52 Khoury, Dina Rizk and Kennedy, Dane, “Comparing Empires: The Ottoman Domains and the British Raj in the Long Nineteenth Century,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no. 2 (2007): 236–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kuehn, Thomas, Empire, Islam, and Politics of Difference: Ottoman Rule in Yemen, 1849–1919 (Leiden: Brill, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
53 Kuehn, Empire, Islam, and Politics, 4–7.
54 For instance, see Kuehn, Empire, Islam, and Politics, 48; Saraçoğlu, M. Safa, Nineteenth-Century Local Governance in Ottoman Bulgaria (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018), 44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Köksal, Ottoman Empire, 13–14.
55 Saraçoğlu, M. Safa, “Resilient Notables: Looking at the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire from the Local Level,” in Contested Spaces of Nobility in Early Modern Europe, ed. Lipp, Charles and Romaniello, Matthew P. (Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2011), 268–69Google Scholar.
56 Toksöz, Meltem, Nomads, Migrants and Cotton in the Eastern Mediterranean: The Making of the Adana-Mersion Region 1850–1908 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
57 Reinkowski, Die Dinge der Ordnung, 264–69. Compare to Köksal's treatment of the Tanzimat reforms as “standard policies” of the Ottoman state with the exception of “more attentive” interest in the “success of reforms” in some regions, in Ottoman Empire, 56.
58 Ippen, “Beiträge zur inneren Geschichte,” 357; Özoğlu, Kurdish Notables, 60; BOA, A. MKT. 160/104, no date; BOA, A. AMD. 1/32, no date.
59 BOA, C. DH. 30/1481, 5 Rabiulahir 1261 (13 April 1845).
60 BOA, A. MKT. MHM. 6/18, 4 Şaban 1264 (3 September 1848).
61 Ibid.
62 Saraçoğlu, Nineteenth-Century Local Governance, 82.
63 Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine, 148.
64 Complaining about the climatic conditions (ab ve hava) is an example of the rhetoric used by the Ottoman officials to either change their appointments or resign from a position. See, for instance, the cases of resignations due to failure to adapt to the local climate in Dibra and Lice: BOA, İ. MVL. 227/7750, 25 Cemaziyelahir 1268 (16 April 1852), and BOA, MVL. 608/46, 20 Şaban 1277 (3 March 1861), respectively.
65 BOA, MVL. 50/34, 7 Ramazan 1263 (19 August 1847).
66 BOA, MVL. 66/8, 20 Zilkade 1265 (7 October 1849).
67 BOA, MVL. 83/64, 3 Rabiulahir 1266 (16 February 1850).
68 BOA, MVL. 87/32, 11 Cemaziyelevvel 1266 (25 March 1850)
69 BOA, MVL. 231/53, 13 Cemaziyelahir 1266 (26 April 1850).
70 BOA, MVL. 248/9, 13 Cemaziyelevvel 1268 (5 March 1852); BOA, İ. MVL. 232/8062, 22 Cemaziyelevvel 1268 (14 March 1852).
71 Şeyhmus Diken, İsyan Sürgünleri (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2010), 263.
72 BOA, MVL. 589/75, 7 Safer 1276 (5 September 1859).
73 BOA, İ. MVL. 281/11022, 4 Zilkade 1269 (9 August 1853).
74 Ibid.
75 BOA, MVL. 586/105, 25 Zilkade 1275 (26 June 1859).
76 BOA, MVL. 589/75, 7 Safer 1276 (5 September 1859).
77 BOA, MVL. 586/105, 25 Zilkade 1275 (26 June 1859); BOA, A. MKT. UM. 359/93, 14 Muharrem 1276 (13 August 1859).
78 Bouquet, Olivier, “Old Elites in a New Republic: The Reconversion of Ottoman Bureaucratic Families in Turkey (1909–1939),” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 31, no. 3 (2011): 590CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
79 Köksal, Ottoman Empire, 80.
80 For the partnership by which the provincial notables of the empire became part of the Ottoman administration, see Yaycıoğlu, Partners of the Empire, 112–13.
81 Boissevain, Jeremy, “Factionalism,” in International Encyclopedia of the Behavioral Sciences, vol. 8 (Oxford, UK: Pergamon, 2001), 5236–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an example, see Clayer, Nathalie, “Local Factionalism and Political Mobilization in the Albanian Province in the Late Ottoman Empire: A Consul Caught Up in a Conflict between Villagers and the Ottoman Authorities,” in Popular Protest and Political Participation in the Ottoman Empire: Studies in Honor of Suraiya Faroqhi, ed. Gara, Eleni, Kabadayı, M. Erdem, and Neumann, Christoph K. (Istanbul: Bilgi University Press, 2011), 197–208Google Scholar.
82 Büssow, Hamidian Palestine, 363; Yuval Ben-Bassat, “Urban Factionalism in Late Ottoman Gaza, c. 1875–1914: Local Politics and Spatial Divisions,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, no. 61 (2018): 606–49.
83 BOA, MVL. 260/44, 29 Şevval 1269 (5 August 1853).
84 BOA, MVL. 267/14, 27 Muharrem 1270 (30 October 1853).
85 Ibid.
86 BOA, İ. MVL. 330/1453, 9 Şaban 1271 (27 April 1855).
87 BOA, MVL. 159/47, 8 Rabiulahir 1271 (29 December 1854).
88 Ibid.
89 Ibid.
90 BOA, MVL. 298/24, 8 Ramazan 1271 (25 May 1855).
91 BOA, İ. DH. 328/21371, 9 Zilkade 1271 (24 July 1855).
92 BOA, MVL. 298/24, 8 Ramazan 1271 (25 May 1855).
93 Ibid.
94 BOA, MVL. 586/105, 25 Zilkade 1275 (26 June 1859).
95 Ibid.
96 BOA, A. MKT. UM. 359/93, 14 Muharrem 1276 (13 August 1859).
97 BOA, A. MKT. MVL. 113/37, 20 Cemaziyelahir 1276 (14 January 1860).
98 BOA, MVL. 630/38, 11 Zilkade 1278 (10 May 1862).
99 Ibid.
100 BOA, C. ZB. 36/1786, 7 Rabiulahir 1254 (30 June 1838); BOA, HAT. 1425/58341, no date; BOA, C. DH. 108/5385, no date.
101 BOA, İ. DH. 53/2602, 6 Muharrem 1258 (17 February 1842).
102 BOA, C. DH. 111/5512, 23 Rabiulahir 1260 (12 May 1844).
103 Ippen, “Beiträge zur inneren Geschichte,” 358.
104 The Ottoman government stripped Hakkı Pasha of his rank of mirimiran, and Talib Bey lost the rank of kapıcıbaşı. BOA, A. MKT. 22/85, 7 Rabiulevvel 1261 (16 March 1845); BOA, A. MKT. 160/33, no date.
105 There was not any change for Talib Bey in the rhetoric of Ottoman correspondence, as bey was already the lowest rank when addressing provincial notables.
106 Szyliowicz, Joseph S., “Changes in Recruitment Patterns and Career-Lines of Ottoman Provincial Administrators during the Nineteenth Century,” in Studies on Palestine during the Ottoman Period, ed. Ma'oz, Moshe (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1975), 249–83Google Scholar, quoted in Büssow, Hamidian Palestine, 404.
107 BOA, İ. MVL. 119/2965, 15 Cemaziyelevvel 1264 (19 April 1848); BOA, A. DVN. MHM. 5A/60, 29 Cemaziyelevvel 1264 (3 May 1848).
108 BOA, MVL. 11/5, 20 Safer 1263 (7 February 1847).
109 BOA, İ. MVL. 136/3694, 11 Rabiulahir 1265 (6 March 1849); BOA, A. AMD. 13/84, no date.
110 BOA, İ. MVL. 159/4596 1 Rabiulevvel 1266 (15 January 1850).
111 BOA, A. TŞF. 8/21, 29 Receb 1266 (10 June 1850).
112 BOA, İ. MVL. 207/6652, 16 Cemaziyelahir 1267 (19 March 1851).
113 The promotion also reinstated his rank of mirimiran. BOA, A. MKT. UM. 59/48, 15 Receb 1267 (16 May 1851).
114 BOA, A. MKT. NZD. 61/62, 6 Muharrem 1269 (20 October 1852); BOA, A. MKT. MVL. 58/2, 5 Safer 1269 (18 November 1852).
115 BOA, A. MKT. NZD. 82/3, 3 Şevval 1269 (10 July 1853); BOA, A. MKT. UM. 141/86, 3 Zilhicce 1269 (7 September 1853).
116 BOA, MVL. 95/89, 25 Zilhicce 1266 (1 November 1850).
117 BOA, MVL. 109/8, 10 Safer 1268 (5 December 1851).
118 BOA, MVL. 122/8, 4 Zilhicce 1268 (19 September 1852).
119 BOA, MVL. 122/50, 23 Zilhicce 1268 (8 October 1852).
120 BOA, MVL. 125/48, 24 Muharrem 1269 (7 November 1852); BOA, MVL. 126/23, 29 Muharrem 1269 (12 November 1852).
121 Ibid.
122 BOA, MVL. 130/26, 3 Rabiulahir 1269 (14 January 1853).
123 BOA, MVL. 130/68, 7 Rabiulahir 1269 (18 January 1853).
124 BOA, A. AMD. 49/52, 29 Zilhicce 1268 (14 October 1852).
125 BOA, A. MKT. UM. 149/48, 19 Rabiulevvel 1270 (20 December 1853).
126 BOA, A. MKT. UM. 329/88, 11 Rabiulevvel 1275 (19 October 1858).
127 BOA, MVL. 375/72, 7 Rabiulevvel 1278 (12 September 1861).
128 BOA, MVL. 560/77, 21 Şevval 1284 (15 February 1868).
129 Reinkowski, Die Dinge der Ordnung, 214–25.
130 BOA, ŞD. 1997/32, 25 Zilhicce 1278 (6 March 1872).
131 BOA, İ. MVL. 497/22480, 11 Cemaziyelahir 1280 (23 November 1863); BOA, MVL. 480/16, 11 Rabiulevvel 1282 (4 August 1865).
132 BOA, A. MKT. UM. 249/15, 21 Zilhicce 1272 (23 August 1856).
133 BOA, İ. ŞD. 17/715, 29 Cemaziyelahir 1286 (6 October 1869).
134 BOA, İ. DH. 618/43005, 2 Cemaziyelevvel 1287 (31 July 1870).
135 BOA, ŞD. 1997/32, 25 Zilhicce 1278 (6 March 1872).
136 Ibid.
137 BOA, İ. DH. 758/61836, 2 Zilkade 1294 (8 November 1877).
138 BOA, İ. DH. 81/65535, 25 Ramazan 1297 (31 August 1880).
139 BOA, DH. MKT. 1425/30, 19 Ramazan 1304 (11 June 1887).
140 For the selection criteria of the district administrators for the reforms of 1858 and 1864, respectively, see Çadırcı, Musa, “Türkiye'de Kaza Yönetimi (1840–1876),” Belleten 53, no. 206 (1989): 255–57Google Scholar; and Milen V. Petrov, “Tanzimat for the Countryside: Midhat Pasa and the Vilayet of Danube, 1864–1868” (PhD diss., Princeton University, 2006), 95–96. For the commission, see Findley, Carter V., Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 177, 266Google Scholar.
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