Abstract
Ambient particulate matter pollution is a serious threat to public health, the global economy and the wider environment. Recent World Health Organisation figures show 92% of the world lives in an area that exceeds the organization’s air quality guideline. Between 87 and 90% of all deaths from air pollution occur in Low–Middle-Income Countries (subcategorised as Least Developed Countries, Less Economically Developed Countries and Newly Industrialising Countries in this study), potentially showing a relationship between effects of air pollution and development. This research investigates how the developmental levels of a country can play a key role in determining its air pollution, with a focus on Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) pollution. Results from primary and secondary literature collected between 2009 and 2017 show that PM10 and PM2.5 pollution concentrations were higher in countries with less development, with the highest levels found in Less Economically Developed Countries, and the least found in More Economically Developed Countries/High Income Countries. There is also exceedingly high levels reported in air from NICs and the Least Developed Country used in this study. In accordance with this finding, the highest observed PM10 level was 592 μg/m3 in Onitsha, Nigeria. The highest deaths per capita were found in a NIC, China. Other important factors in determining PM levels included geographical location and natural sources of PMs. PM pollution increases between countries with different developmental levels were noted to be correlated to a number of socio-economic factors, as represented by the Human Development Index.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The WHO AQG at the time of writing is 10 μg/m3 (annual mean) for PM2.5 and 20 μg/m3 (annual mean) for PM10. Available at: who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health (28th January 2020).
References
Adler NE, Newman K (2002) Socioeconomic disparities in health: pathways and policies. Health Aff 21:60–76
Apte JS, Marshall JD, Cohen AJ, Brauer M (2015) Addressing global mortality from ambient PM2.5. Environ Sci Technol 49:8057–8066
Aruga K (2019) Investigating the energy-environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for the Asia–Pacific Region. Sustainability 11(8):2395
Atkinson R, Barratt B, Armstrong B, Anderson H, Beevers S, Mudway I, Green D, Derwent R, Wilkinson P, Tonne C (2009) The impact of the congestion charging scheme on ambient air pollution concentrations in London. Atmos Environ 43(34):5493–5500
Barmpadimos I, Hueglin C, Keller J, Henne S, Prévôt ASH (2011) Influence of meteorology on PM10 trends and variability in Switzerland from 1991 to 2008. Atmos Chem Phys 11:1813–1835
Barnett A, Knibbs L (2014) Higher fuel prices are associated with lower air pollution levels. Environ Int 66:88–91
Bel G, Holst M (2018) Evaluation of the impact of ‘Bus Rapid Transit’ on air pollution in Mexico City. Transp Policy 63:209–220
Borja K (2017) Corruption indicators, foreign capital, and economic growth in developing countries. J Dev Areas 51(4):95–107
Bourdrel T, Bind M, Bejot Y, Morel O, Argacha J (2017) Cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 1018:1–9
Burnett RT, Pope CA, Ezzati M, Olives C, Lim SM, Mentha S, Shin HH, Singh G, Hubbell B, Brauer M, Anderson HR, Smith KR, Kan H, Laden F, Pruss-Ustun A, Turner MC, Thun M, Cohen A (2014) An integrated risk function for estimating the global burden of disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter exposure. Environ Health Persp 122(4):397–403
Candau F, Dienesch E (2017) Pollution haven and corruption paradise. J Environ Econ Manag 85:171–192
Council Directive 2008/50/EC of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (2008) OJ L 152/1
CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) (2010) Air quality assessment, emission inventory and source apportionment study for Bangalore city. CPCB, Bangalore
DEFRA (2017) Air Pollution in the UK 2016. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/annualreport/air_pollution_uk_2016_issue_1.pdf. Accessed 22 Feb 2018
Department of the Environment (1995) Expert panel on Air Quality Standards: Particles. HMSO, London
Dinda S (2004) Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: a survey. Ecol Econ 49(4):431–455
Duque L, Relvas H, Silveira C, Ferreira J, Monteiro A, Gama C, Rafael S, Freitas S, Borrego C, Miranda A (2016) Evaluating strategies to reduce urban air pollution. Atmos Environ 127:196–204
Etchie T, Sivanesan S, Adewuyi G, Krishnamurthi K, Rao P, Etchie A, Pillarisetti A, Arora N, Smith K (2017) The health burden and economic costs averted by ambient PM2.5 pollution reductions in Nagpur, India. Environ Int 102:145–156
EU (2010) European Union Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and the Council on Industrial Emissions
EU (2018) European Union Regulation (EU) 2018/858 of 30 May 2018 on the approval and market surveillance of motor vehicles and their trailers, and of systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, amending Regulations (EC) No 715/2007 and (EC) No 595/2009 and repealing Directive 2007/46/EC
Fabian Society (2015) Transition by consent. [online] London: Fabian Society, 1-6. https://www.fabians.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/TransitionByConsent_final.pdf. Accessed 18 Feb 2018
Fang D, Wang Q, Li H, Yu Y, Lu Y, Qian X (2016) Mortality effects assessment of ambient PM2.5 pollution in 74 leading cities in China. Sci Tot Environ 569–570:1545–1552
Giannadaki D, Lelieveld J, Pozzer A (2016) Implementing the US air quality standard for PM2.5 worldwide can prevent millions of premature deaths per year. Environ Health 15(1):2–11
Guttikunda S, Goel R, Pant P (2014) Nature of air pollution, emission sources, and management in the Indian cities. Atmos Environ 95:501–510
Harrison R, Giorio C, Beddows D, Dall’Osto M (2010) Size distribution of airborne particles controls outcome of epidemiological studies. Sci Tot Environ 409(2):289–293
Health Effects Institute (2011) The impact of the congestion charging scheme on air quality in London. Part 1. Emissions modelling and analysis of air pollution measurements. Boston: Health Effects Institute, pp 5–88
Holtsmark B, Skonhoft A (2014) The Norwegian support and subsidy policy of electric cars. Should it be adopted by other countries? Environ Sci Policy 42:160–168
Huang L, Rao C, van der Kuijp TJ, Bi J, Liu Y (2017) A comparison of individual exposure, perception, and acceptable levels of PM2.5 with air pollution policy objectives in China. Environ Res 2017(157):78–86
Hunt J (2007) How corruption hits people when they are down. J Dev Econ 84(2):574–589
Kirenga B, Meng Q, van Gemert F, Aanyu-Tukamuhebwa H, Chavannes N, Katamba A, Obai G, Molen T, Schwander S, Mohsenin V (2015) The state of ambient air quality in two Ugandan cities: a pilot cross-sectional spatial assessment. Int J Environ Res Pub Health 12(7):8075–8091
Lalive R, Luechinger S, Schmutzler A (2017) Does expanding regional train service reduce air pollution? J Environ. Econ Manag 50:2–10
Li V, Han Y, Lam J, Zhu Y, Bacon-Shone J (2018) Air pollution and environmental injustice: are the socially deprived exposed to more PM2.5 pollution in Hong Kong? Environ Sci Policy 80:53–61
Macedo J (2013) Planning a sustainable City. J Plan History 12(4):334–353
Mahalingaiah S, Hart J, Laden F, Terry K, Boynton-Jarrett R, Aschengrau A, Missmer S (2014) Air pollution and risk of uterine leiomyomata. Epidemiology 25(5):682–688
Narayan S, Doytch N (2017) An investigation of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth nexus using industrial and residential energy consumption. Energy Econ 68:160–176
Ngele S, Onwu F (2015) Comparison of particulate matter levels in major urban centres in Eastern Nigeria. Int J Environ Sci 5(4):765–773
Olken B, Pande R (2012) Corruption in developing countries. MIT, Boston
RCP (Royal College of Physicians) (2016) Every breath we take: the lifelong impact of air pollution. RCP, London
Rieuwerts J (2016) An air that kills: our invisible air pollution crisis. 1st ed, UK. self-published
Roux J, Bard D, Le Pabic E, Segala C, Reis J, Ongagna J, de Sèze J, Leray E (2017) Air pollution by particulate matter PM10 may trigger multiple sclerosis relapses. Environ Res 156:404–410
Soltani A, Sharifi E (2018) A case study of sustainable urban planning principles in Curitiba (Brazil) and their applicability in Shiraz (Iran). Int J Dev Sustain 1(2):2–13
Stern D (2004) The rise and fall of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Dev 32(8):1419–1439
Stern D (2017) The environmental Kuznets curve after 25 years. J Bio-econ 19:7–28
Transport and Environment (2019) Low-Emission Zones are a success—but they must now move to zero-emission mobility. https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_09_Briefing_LEZ-ZEZ_final.pdf. Accessed 28 Jan 2020
UK DfT (United Kingdom Department for Transport) (2015) Vehicle licensing statistics. UK DfT, London
United Kingdom Department for Transport (2016) Vehicle licensing statistics 2016. UK DfT, London
United Nations (2014) Country classification; data sources, country classifications and aggregation methodology. United Nations, Geneva
United Nations (2019) Health as a political driver for increased ambition on climate change, in the UN Secretary-General’s 2019 Climate Summit. https://www.who.int/globalchange/commit/Proposed-Commitments-SPD-Coalition.pdf?ua=1&ua=1. Accessed 5 Nov 2020
US EPA (2017) Volkswagen Clean Air Act civil settlement. https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/volkswagen-clean-air-act-civil-settlement. Accessed 26 Sep 2017
US EPA (2018a) The Clean Air Act. https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/clean-air-act-text. Accessed 17 Jan 2018
US EPA (2018b) Particulate matter pollution. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics. 2017b, Accessed 17 Jan 2018
US EPA (2011) The benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2020. US EPA, Washington DC
WHO (World Health Organization) (2017) WHO global urban ambient air pollution database (update 2016). http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/. Accessed 1 Jul 2017
Wood E, Sallar AM, Schechter MT, Hogg RS (1999) Social inequalities in male mortality amenable to medical intervention in British Columbia. Soc Sci Med 48(12):1751–1758. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00081-7
World Bank (2016a) The cost of air pollution: strengthening the economic case for action. The World Bank, Seattle, pp 1–122. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25013/108141.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y. Accessed 26 Feb 2018
World Bank (2016b) DataBank | The World Bank. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx. Accessed 28 Feb 2018
World Health Organization Office for Europe (2016) Ambient air pollution: a global assessment of exposure and burden of disease. World Health Organization, Bonn
Yang J, Chen S, Qin P, Lu F, Liu A (2018) The effect of subway expansions on vehicle congestion: evidence from Beijing. J Environ Econ Manag 88:114–133
Yin P, He G, Fan M, Chu K (2017) Particulate air pollution and mortality in 38 of China’s largest cities: time series analysis. Br Med J 1:1379
Yorifuji T, Kashima S, Diez M, Kado Y, Sanada S, Doi H (2017) Prenatal exposure to outdoor air pollution and child behavioural problems at school age in Japan. Environ Int 99:192–198
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Environmental Science team at the University of Plymouth regarding advice and access to data for this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this research or publication.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: Mohamed F. Yassin.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Johnson, R., Rieuwerts, J. & Comber, S.D.W. How does a country’s developmental status affect ambient air quality with respect to particulate matter?. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 18, 3395–3406 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03072-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03072-6