Nowadays, the processing of bio-renewable raw materials into biofuels and valuable products, namely, bifunctional carbonyl/carboxyl compounds, which serve as the basis for biopolymers, has become one of the most important areas in the development of heterogeneous catalysis. The present review discusses the most recent results in the field of synthesis of valuable products via the oxidative conversion of platform molecules such as glycerol, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, and 1,2-propanediol using heterogeneous catalytic systems. Together with traditional catalysts based on gold and bimetallic Au–Pt nanoparticles, catalysts based on transition metal oxides and their compositions are being considered. This review observes the trends in the development of catalytic systems that allow bifunctional carbonyl/carboxyl compounds to be obtained, including systems based on metal–organic framework polymers with immobilized redox active sites comprising clusters of noble metals or bimetallic materials. The subsequent development of these catalytic materials has currently attracted increasing attention from the scientific community.