Abstract
In two experiments we examined the role of language proficiency and associative strength in the production of false memory. We constructed Deese–Roediger–McDermott lists using both Spanish and English free association norms. Lists were constructed to vary in backward associative strength (BAS). Experiment 1 participants were native Spanish speakers with some proficiency in English while Experiment 2 participants were native Spanish participants that had either high, intermediate, or low English proficiency. Results showed that, in both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, false recognition was greater in participants’ dominant language (L1 or Spanish) than in their non-dominant language (L2 or English), and false recognition in L2 increased with L2 proficiency when low-BAS lists were studied (Experiment 2). Further, false recognition was higher in high-BAS lists than in low-BAS lists in both L1 and L2. Finally, we collected a measure of participants’ knowledge of our stimulus words in L2. These data showed that participants had far from perfect knowledge of all L2 stimuli. Analyses that factored out the effects of L2 word knowledge failed to alter the effects of L1 vs. L2, L2 proficiency and BAS on false recognition.
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Notes
Knott et al. (2011) addressed this issue in their research by ensuring that the age-related frequency for words in their stimuli were equated across age groups. Thus, word knowledge differences may be less likely to complicate the age-related false memory differences they found. Nevertheless, this concern applies to other work that did not construct stimuli as purposefully, including all studies that have examined language dominance and second language proficiency to date.
One participant was excluded from all analyses due to a computer error in the recording of their data.
We did not use separate translation scores for critical lures assigned to the low- and high-BAS conditions, because study lists were constructed such that each critical lure had low- and high-BAS associates, and each participant studied either the low- or high-BAS associates for a given lure. Thus, the same lure items were shown in the low- and high-BAS conditions across participants, making a composite measure of critical lure translation the most appropriate way of measuring critical lure knowledge.
The participants were in a proficiency group because they have passed an English test. In this test, both reading and listening comprehension, and written and oral expression were evaluated. Thus, high proficiency participants had passed both the low and intermediate level exams, while intermediate proficiency participants had passed the low-level exam. Low proficiency participants had yet to pass the low-level proficiency exam.
F ratios, mean squared error, p values and η2p are reported from the ANOVA-based analysis of the false recognition data.
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This research was supported by grant SA052G18, awarded to Maria Soledad Beato by Junta de Castilla y León.
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Appendix
Appendix
The DRM lists constructed as stimuli for these studies. BAS list strengths are reported for each list.
Spanish lists
Critical lure | Associated words | BAS | BAS condition |
|---|---|---|---|
Corazón (heart) | Latido, miocardio, bombear, órgano (beat, myocardium, pump, organ) | 0.475 | High |
Corazón (heart) | Arteria, amor, sentimiento, roto (artery, love, feeling, broken) | 0.072 | Low |
Árbol (tree) | Rama, tronco, abeto, raíz (branch, log, fir, root) | 0.483 | High |
Árbol (tree) | Leña, naturaleza, monte, pájaro (firewood, nature, hill, bird) | 0.062 | Low |
Coche (car) | Volante, maletero, rueda, conducir (steering-wheel, trunk, wheel, drive) | 0.533 | High |
Coche (car) | Moto, rápido, nuevo, pinchazo (motorcycle, fast, new, puncture) | 0.067 | Low |
Basura (trash) | Desperdicios, vertedero, papelera, porquería (scraps, garbage-dump, basket, garbage) | 0.420 | High |
Basura (trash) | Contaminar, mierda, suciedad, desagradable (contaminate, shit, dirt, unpleasant) | 0.045 | Low |
Cárcel (jail) | Rejas, prisionero, prisión, celda (bars, prisoner, prison, cell) | 0.452 | High |
Cárcel (jail) | Culpable, ladrón, corrupto, libertad (guilty, thief, corrupt, freedom) | 0.057 | Low |
Cura (pastor) | Sotana, reverendo, sacerdote, párroco (soutane, reverend, priest, parish-priest) | 0.430 | High |
Cura (pastor) | Diócesis, papa, religión, capilla (diocese, pope, religion, chapel) | 0.067 | Low |
Pelo (hair) | Peine, coleta, melena, patillas (comb, ponytail, mane, sideburns) | 0.457 | High |
Pelo (hair) | Bigote, depilación, largo, corto (mustache, depilation, long, short) | 0.070 | Low |
Luz (light) | Bombilla, lámpara, claridad, vela (bulb, lamp, clarity, candle) | 0.492 | High |
Luz (light) | Día, sol, penumbra, cortina (day, sun, semidarkness, curtain) | 0.072 | Low |
Tonto (silly) | Bobo, imbécil, estúpido, idiota (fool, imbecile, stupid, idiot) | 0.456 | High |
Tonto (silly) | Inocente, insulto, antipático, grosero (gullible, insult, unfriendly, gross) | 0.053 | Low |
Perro (dog) | Ladrar, ladrido, gato, hueso (bark, barking, cat, bone) | 0.497 | High |
Perro (dog) | Caza, fiel, collar, colmillo (hunting, faithful, collar, fang) | 0.048 | Low |
Libro (book) | Capítulo, lectura, prólogo, manual (chapter, reading, prologue, manual) | 0.439 | High |
Libro (book) | Interesante, hojas, cultura, letras (interesting, sheets, culture, letters) | 0.060 | Low |
Muerte (death) | Tanatorio, pésame, sepultura, ataúd (morgue, condolence, burial, coffin) | 0.468 | High |
Muerte (death) | Ceniza, pena, esqueleto, desgracia (ash, pity, skeleton, misfortune) | 0.079 | Low |
Puerta (door) | Pomo, llave, cerrar, blindada (knob, key, close, armored) | 0.465 | High |
Puerta (door) | Entrada, ventana, salida, salir (entrance, window, exit, leave) | 0.057 | Low |
Rey (king) | Monarca, majestad, reina, príncipe (monarch, majesty, queen, prince) | 0.474 | High |
Rey (king) | Infante, poder, reino, castillo (infante, power, kingdom, castle) | 0.068 | Low |
Dinero (money) | Cheque, hucha, ahorro, ingreso (check, piggybank, savings, deposit) | 0.482 | High |
Dinero (money) | Cuenta, recibo, perder, comprar (bank-account, receipt, lose, buy) | 0.063 | Low |
Teatro (theater) | Escenario, interpretación, representación, escena (stage, interpretation, performance, scene) | 0.431 | High |
Teatro (theater) | Aplauso, público, actriz, butaca (applause, public, actress, armchair) | 0.052 | Low |
English lists
Critical lure | Associated words | BAS | BAS condition |
|---|---|---|---|
Board | Chalk, bulletin, dart, skate | 0.483 | High |
Board | Stiff, surf, committee, game | 0.055 | Low |
Bug | Beetle, insect, termite, pest | 0.442 | High |
Bug | Irritate, ant, tick, annoy | 0.077 | Low |
Color | Hue, crayon, pigment, maroon | 0.472 | High |
Color | Favorite, bright, pink, yellow | 0.063 | Low |
Ear | Lobe, q-tips, earring, hearing | 0.470 | High |
Ear | Listen, eye, noise, wax | 0.060 | Low |
Hot | Spicy, humid, chili, fever | 0.435 | High |
Hot | Iron, sexy, flame, burn | 0.078 | Low |
Hungry | Starving, famished, starve, thirsty | 0.492 | High |
Hungry | Eating, stomach, sandwich, food | 0.050 | Low |
Lie | Fib, perjury, untruthful, deception | 0.481 | High |
Lie | Betray, honest, myth, false | 0.079 | Low |
Number | Digit, serial, count, seven | 0.475 | High |
Number | Name, hundred, two, one | 0.074 | Low |
Party | Celebration, celebrate, festival, slumber | 0.454 | High |
Party | Fun, banquet, dance, beer | 0.073 | Low |
Pig | Hog, pork, sow, ham | 0.456 | High |
Pig | Squeal, cop, policeman, mud | 0.065 | Low |
Ring | Diamond, doorbell, bell, engagement | 0.466 | High |
Ring | Phone, ruby, finger, marriage | 0.067 | Low |
Same | Differ, identical, alike, similar | 0.436 | High |
Same | Usual, twin, constant, exact | 0.064 | Low |
Shoe | Sneaker, sock, shoelace, heel | 0.483 | High |
Shoe | Galoshes, tie, salesman, fit | 0.059 | Low |
Story | Tale, fairytale, fable, plot | 0.466 | High |
Story | Fiction, tell, paragraph, novel | 0.065 | Low |
Street | Avenue, boulevard, main, sidewalk | 0.467 | High |
Street | Parkway, cross, highway, block | 0.056 | Low |
Wood | Lumber, splinter, timber, carpenter | 0.461 | High |
Wood | Cabinet, ax, chop, paper | 0.067 | Low |
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Beato, M.S., Arndt, J. The effect of language proficiency and associative strength on false memory. Psychological Research 85, 3134–3151 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01449-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01449-3