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Processing of Prosody and Semantics in Sepedi and L2 English

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Abstract

A phoneme-detection task shows that listeners of Sepedi use semantic information in processing but not prosody (Experiment 1). Sepedi is a language with no grammaticalised prosodic expression of focus. Sepedi listeners detected phoneme targets faster when the phoneme-bearing words were focussed (as opposed to unfocussed) but not when occurring in a context conducive to prosodic emphasis (as opposed to non-conducive). Experiment 2 tested the role of semantic focus and prosody in processing by Sepedi L1/English L2 listeners (English being a language with systematic focus-to-accent mapping). Non-native listeners detected phoneme-bearing words faster in focussed condition (as opposed to unfocussed) and in accented condition (as opposed to deaccented). The results suggest that the L2 prosodic structure is exploited by Black South African English listeners even if this feature is not present in their L1. Our experiments replicate the pattern of results found in Akker and Cutler’s (Biling Lang Cogn 6:81–96, 2003) experiment for Dutch L1/ English L2 listeners, even with listeners whose L1 does not use prosody the way English does.

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Notes

  1. The most natural option to express focus in Sepedi is through syntactic operations, such as inversion and clefting (see Zerbian 2006 for details).

  2. The following abbreviations are used in the glosses: Roman numbers refer to nominal class and are given where relevant for agreement; SM = subject marker, AGR = agreement marker, REL = relative marker, POSS = possessive marker, SG = singular, PL = plural, PROPNAME = proper name.

  3. The penultimate syllable of a phrase is always lengthened in Sepedi (Zerbian 2006). In order to avoid a target phoneme in a lengthened syllable (as would be the case for [t] in (1)), an adverb was added in sentence-final position.

  4. Due to the agreement prefixes, this would give a cue to the position of the target phoneme even before the answer is heard.

  5. It can be argued that the stem-initial position is a phonologically strong position in the Bantu languages in which all phonemic and tonal contrasts occur (Downing 2010). More research comparing the processing advantages of different positions across typologically different languages is needed.

  6. Except for (2a), target phonemes occur initially in the orthographic word. However, orthography is not a reliable indicator of wordhood (see Hyman and Katamba 2005 for a discussion of wordhood criteria in Bantu), especially not in the case of the Sepedi disjunctive orthography.

  7. The factor target position could not be integrated in the binomial model since the model failed to converge. Hence, only the impact of the two relevant factors (semantic status and prosodic context) was tested on the distribution of missing responses.

  8. Notice that the model reported in Raborife et al. (2016) showed an interaction of prosody and target position: compared to early and late targets without raised pitch, early targets with raised pitch were detected slower than late ones. However, early and late targets with raised pitch were not significantly faster than early and late targets without prosodic cues. If we compare the mean values of early/late targets with/without prosodic cues reported in Raborife et al. (2016) with the mean values reported in the present paper, the direction of the results is similar. In the current model, however, this interaction is not significant. This is due to the fact that the outlier diagnostic of the two models is different: unlike here, Raborife et al.’s model included data points above 1500 ms and RTs values higher than this threshold (15 data points) were mainly found for early targets with prosody, which may explain the significant interaction. In the current model, removing data points above such a threshold improved the fit of the model.

  9. We are grateful to Anne Cutler for providing us with the original English audio material used in Akker and Cutler (2003).

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) grant to the project A7 in the SFB 732 “Incremental Specification in Context” at the University of Stuttgart. We thank all participants and the School of Languages, Literature and Media Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg for their support in data collection, the Radio Academy at the same institution for assistance in the recording of the Sepedi stimuli, Anne Cutler for providing us with the English audio sentence material used in Akker and Cutler (2003), and several reviewers for constructive and helpful comments. Our heartfelt thanks go to Khtušo Matlou for his enthusiasm and help concerning the study. Without him, this would not have been possible. Re lebogile! This research was also partially supported by the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 661530 awarded to the first author and by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the program “Investissements d’Avenir” (reference: ANR-10-LABX-0083).

Funding

This research was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) grant to the project A7 in the SFB 732 “Incremental Specification in Context” at the University of Stuttgart. This research was also supported by the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No 661530 awarded to the first author and by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the program “Investissements d’Avenir” (reference: ANR-10-LABX-0083).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratoire de Linguistique Formelle (UMR 7110) CNRS, Université de Paris, 8 Rue Albert Einstein, 75013, Paris, France

    Giuseppina Turco

  2. Institut für Linguistik: Anglistik, Universität Stuttgart, Keplerstr. 17, 70174, Stuttgart, Germany

    Sabine Zerbian

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  1. Giuseppina Turco
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Correspondence to Giuseppina Turco.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Sepedi Experimental Sentences (with Target Phonemes in Bold). “A” stands for answer, “Q” stands for Question.

A1::

O apeela malome wa go khuma nama ya go tura mosegare.

SM3SG cook_for 1.uncle POSS1 AGR15 rich 9.meat POSS9 AGR15 expensive afternoon

She cooks expensive meat for the rich uncle in the afternoon.

Q1a::

O apeela malome ofe nama mosegare?

SM3SG cook_for 1.uncle 1.which 9.meat afternoon

Which uncle does she cook meat for in the afternoon?

Q1b::

O apeela malome nama efe mosegare?

SM3SG cook_for 1.uncle 9.meat 9.which afternoon

Which meat does she cook for the uncle in the afternoon?

A2::

Ba nyakela lesogana leo le timanago monyana yoo a phagamilego legaeng.

SM3PL search_for 5.boy REL5 AGR 5 stingy 1.girl REL1 AGR1 high-esteem village

They are searching a highly esteemed girl for the stingy boy in the village.

Q2a::

Ba nyakela lesogana lefe monyana legaeng?

SM3PL search_for 5.boy 5.which 1.girl village

For which boy are they searching a girl in the village?

Q2b::

Ba nyakela lesogana monyana ofe legaeng?

SM3PL search_for 5.boy 1.girl 1.which village

Which girl are they searching for the boy in the village?

A3::

O fa ngwana wa Kholofelo sego sa go pentwa mošomong.

SM3SG give 1.child POSS1 PROPNAME 7.calabash POSS7 AGR15 paint work

He gives Kholofelo’s child a painted calabash at work.

Q3a::

O fa ngwana ofe sego mošomong?

SM3SG give 1.child 1.which 7.calabash work

Which child does he give a calabash at work?

Q3b::

O fa ngwana sego sefe mošomong?

SM3SG give 1.child 7.calabash 7.which work

Which calabash does he give the child at work?

A4::

O ngwalela mma yoo a thušago lengwalo la go kwagala goseng.

SM3SG write_for 1.mother REL1 AGR1 help 7.letter POSS7 AGR15 comprehensive morning

He writes a comprehensive letter to the helpful mother in the morning.

Q4a::

O ngwalela mma ofe lengwalo goseng?

SM3SG write_for 1.mother 1.which 7.letter morning

Which mother does he write a letter to in the morning?

Q4b::

O ngwalela mma lengwalo lefe goseng?

SM3SG write_for 1.mother 7.letter 7.which morning

Which letter does he write to the mother in the morning?

A5::

Ba file mong wa paesekela merogo ya Tadi maloba.

SM3PL give 1.owner POSS1 9.bike 4.vegetable POSS4 PROPNAME yesterday

They gave the owner of the bicycle Tadi’s vegetables yesterday.

Q5a::

Ba file mong ofe merogo maloba?

SM3PL give 1.owner 1.which 4.vegetable yesterday

Which owner did they give vegetables yesterday?

Q5b::

Ba file mong merogo efe maloba?

SM3PL give 1.owner 4.vegetable 4.which yesterday

Which vegetables did they give the owner yesterday?

A6::

Re fa molemi wa go khuduga maswi a pudi monyanyeng.

SM1PL give 1.farmer POSS1 AGR15 move 6.milk POSS6 9.goat party

We are giving goat milk to the farmer who is moving away at the party.

Q6a::

Le fa molemi ofe maswi monyanyeng?

SM2PL give 1.farmer 1.which 6.milk party

Which farmer are you giving milk at the party?

Q6b::

Le fa molemi maswi afe monyanyeng?

SM2PL give 1.farmer 6.milk 6.which party

Which milk are you giving the farmer at the party?

A7::

O nea mmane yoo a khudugago pudi ye tona lenyalong.

SM3SG give 1.aunt REL1 AGR1 move 9.goat AGR9 male wedding

He gives a male goat to the aunt who is moving away at the wedding.

Q7a::

O nea mmane ofe pudi lenyalong?

SM3SG give 1.aunt 1.which 9.goat wedding

Which aunt does he give a goat at the wedding?

Q7b::

O nea mmane pudi efe lenyalong?

SM3SG give 1.aunt 9.goat 9.which wedding

Which goat does he give to the aunt at the wedding?

A8::

O fa moagi yoo a phasago mošomo woo o kwatišago lesoding.

SM3SG give 1.builder REL1 AGR1 pass 3.work REL3 AGR3 make_angry wilderness

He gives angering work to the builder who passes (his exams) in the wilderness.

Q8a::

O fa moagi ofe mošomo lesoding?

SM3SG give 1.builder 1.which 3.work wilderness

Which builder does he give work to in the wilderness?

Q8b::

O fa moagi mošomo ofe lesoding?

SM3SG give 1.builder 3.work 3.which wilderness

Which work does he give to the builder in the wilderness?

A9::

Re nyadiša monna yo motelele mosadi wa go khumiša išago.

SM1PL marry 1.man AGR1 1.tall 1.woman POSS1 AGR15 make_rich next_year

We are marrying the tall man (with) the woman who makes (people) rich next year.

Q9a::

Le nyadiša monna ofe mosadi išago?

SM2PL marry 1.man 1.which 1.woman next_year

Which man are you marrying (with) the woman next year?

Q9b::

Le nyadiša monna mosadi ofe išago?

SM2PL marry 1.man 1.woman 1.which next_year

Which woman are you marrying the man (with) next year?

A10::

Ba fa mošemane wa go thanya nama ya go kwala difihlolong.

SM3PL give 1.boy POSS1 AGR15 clever 9.meat POSS9 AGR15 sufficient breakfast

They give the clever boy enough meat at breakfast.

Q10a::

Ba fa mošemane ofe nama difihlolong?

SM3PL give 1.boy 1.which 9.meat breakfast

Which boy do they give meat at breakfast?

Q10b::

Ba fa mošemane nama efe difihlolong?

SM3PL give 1.boy 9.meat 9.which breakfast

Which meat do they give the boy at breakfast?

A11::

Ba nweša motswala yoo a dikologago maswi a pere bosasa.

SM3PL make_drink 1.cousin REL1 AGR1 dizzy 6.milk POSS 9.horse morning

They make the dizzy cousin drink horse milk early in the morning.

Q11a::

Ba nweša motswala ofe maswi bosasa?

SM3PL make_drink 1.cousin 1.which 6.milk morning

Which cousin do they make drink milk early in the morning?

Q11b::

Ba nweša motswala maswi afe bosasa?

SM3PL make_drink 1.cousin 6.milk 6.which morning

Which milk do they make the cousin drink early in the morning?

A12::

O rwadiša lesole la tona sedirišwa sa go kapa mmileng.

SM1SG make_carry 5.soldier POSS5 tall 7.tool POSS7 AGR15 chop road

She makes the head-man’s soldier carry the chopping tool on the road.

Q12a::

O rwadiša lesole lefe sedirišwa mmileng?

SM1SG make_carry 5.soldier 5.which 7.tool roadSM1SG make_carry 5.soldier 5.which 7.tool road

Which soldier does she make carry the tool on the road?

Q12b::

O rwadiša lesole sedirišwa sefe mmileng?

SM1SG make_carry 5.soldier 7.tool 7.which road

Which tool does she make the soldier carry on the road?

A13::

Re fihlela ngwana wa Phaga mosamelo wa Kholofelo marega.

SM1PL hide 1.child POSS1 PROPNAME 3.pillow POSS3 PROPNAME winter

We hide Kholofelo’s pillow from Phaga’s child in winter.

Q13a::

Le fihlela ngwana ofe mosamelo marega?

SM2PL hide 1.child 1.which 3.pillow winter

Which child do you hide the pillow from in winter?

Q13b::

Le fihlela ngwana mosamelo ofe marega?

SM2PL hide 1.child 3.pillow 3.which winter

Which pillow do you hide from the child in winter?

A14::

O bulela morena yoo a diegago lemati la kamore mesong.

SM3SG open_for 1.man REL1 AGR1 delay 5.door POSS5 9.room morning

He opens the room door for the gentleman who gets delayed in the morning.

Q14a::

O bulela morena ofe lemati mesong?

SM3SG open_for 1.man 1.which 5.door morning

Which gentleman does he open the door for in the morning?

Q14b::

O bulela morena lemati lefe mesong?

SM3SG open_for 1.man 5.door 5.which morning

Which door does he open for the gentleman in the morning?

A15::

Re romela mošemane yoo a phomolago lengwalo la keletšo mošomong.

SM1PL send 1.boy REL1 AGR1 rest 5.letter POSS5 9.advice work

We send the boy who is resting a letter of advice at work.

Q15a::

Le romela mošemane ofe lengwalo mošomong?

SM2PL send 1.boy 1.which 5.letter work

Which boy do you send a letter at work?

Q15b::

Le romela mošemane lengwalo lefe mošomong?

SM2PL send 1.boy 5.letter 5.which work

Which letter do you send the boy at work?

A16::

O fa mošomi yoo a thonkgilwego nomoro ya pese ofising.

SM3SG give 1.worker REL1 AGR1 injure 9.number POSS9 9.bus office

He gives the injured worker the bus number at the office.

Q16a::

O fa mošomi ofe nomoro ofising?

SM3SG give 1.worker 1.which 9.number office

Which worker does he give the number at the office?

Q16b::

O fa mošomi nomoro efe ofising?

SM3SG give 1.worker 9.number 9.which office

Which number does he give the worker at the office?

A17::

Re logiša lesogana leo le kotamilego maano a polayano gae.

SM1PL help_devise 5.boy REL5 AGR5 squat 6.plan POSS6 murderous home

We help the boy who is squatting devise murderous plans at home.

Q17a::

Le logiša lesogana lefe maano gae?

SM2PL help_devise 5.boy 5.which 6.plan home

Which boy do you help devise plans at home?

Q17b::

Le logiša lesogana maano afe gae?

SM2PL help_devise 5.boy 6.plan 6.which home

Which plans do you help devise the boy at home?

A18::

Re nweša lesea leo le ponokago maswi a go tonya malaong.

SM1PL feed 5.baby REL5 AGR5 naked 6.milk POSS6 AGR15 cold bed

We feed cold milk to the naked baby in bed.

Q18a::

Le nweša lesea lefe maswi malaong?

SM2PL feed 5.baby 5.which 6.milk bed

Which baby do you feed milk in bed?

Q18b::

Le nweša lesea maswi afe malaong?

SM2PL feed 5.baby 6.milk 6.which bed

Which milk do you feed to the baby in bed?

A19::

O fa moemedi wa Pelaelo mahlare a khabetšhe lenyaga.

SM3SG give 1.representative POSS1 PROPNAME 6.leaf POSS6 9.cabbage this_year

She gives Pelaelo’s representative cabbage leaves this year.

Q19a::

O fa moemedi ofe mahlare lenyaga?

SM3SG give 1.representative 1.which 6.leaf this_year

Which representative does she give leaves this year?

Q19b::

O fa moemedi mahlare afe lenyaga?

SM3SG give 1.representative 6.leaf 6.which this_year

Which leaves does she give the representative this year?

A20::

O lemoša mošomi wa go phura melao ya thaloko selemo.

SM3SG make_aware 1.worker POSS1 AGR15 chew 4.rule POSS4 9.game summer

He makes the worker who is chewing aware of the rules of the game in summer.

Q20a::

O lemoša mošomi ofe melao selemo?

SM3SG make_aware 1.worker 1.which 4.rule summer

Which worker does he make aware of the rules in summer?

Q20b::

O lemoša mošomi melao efe selemo?

SM3SG make_aware 1.worker 4.rule 4.which summer

Which rules does he make the worker aware of in summer?

A21::

O fa monna wa Thebe lesedi leo le kwagalago mehleng.

SM3SG give 1.man POSS1 PROPNAME 5.light REL5 AGR5 audible every_day

He gives Thebe’s husband audible (obvious) light (hope) every day.

Q21a::

O fa monna ofe lesedi mehleng?

SM3SG give 1.man 1.which 5.light every_day

Which husband does he give hope every day?

Q21b::

O fa monna lesedi lefe mehleng?

SM3SG give 1.man 5.light 5.which every_day

Which hope does he give the husband every day?

A22::

O lemoša morui wa pudi mollo woo o timilwego founung.

SM3SG make_aware 1.owner POSS1 9.goat 3.fire REL3 AGR3 extinguish phone

He makes the goat-owner aware of the extinguished fire over the phone.

Q22a::

O lemoša morui ofe mollo founung?

SM3SG make_aware 1.owner 1.which 3.fire phone

Which owner does he make aware of the fire over the phone?

Q22b::

O lemoša morui mollo ofe founung?

SM3SG make_aware 1.owner 3.fire 3.which phone

Which fire does he make the owner aware of over the phone?

A23::

Ba fa seboledi sa polelo melaetša ya go kwagala lehung.

SM3PL give 7.speaker POSS7 9.language 4.message POSS4 AGR15 understand funeral

They give the speaker of the language understandable messages at the funeral.

Q23a::

Ba fa seboledi sefe melaetša lehung?

SM3PL give 7.speaker 7.which 4.message funeral

Which speaker do they give messages at the funeral?

Q23b::

Ba fa seboledi melaetša efe lehung?

SM3PL give 7.speaker 4.message 4.which funeral

Which messages do they give the speaker at the funeral?

A24::

Re bolaiša mosadi wa Pego noga ya go kwega lefifing.

SM1PL make_kill 1.woman POSS1 PROPNAME 9.snake POSS9 AGR15 audible darkness

We make Pego’s wife kill the snake that’s audible in the darkness.

Q24a::

Le bolaiša mosadi ofe noga lefifing?

SM2PL make_kill 1.woman 1.which 9.snake darkness

Which wife do you make kill the snake in the darkness?

SM1PL make_kill 1.woman 9.snake 9.which darkness

Q24b::

Le bolaiša mosadi noga efe lefifing?

Which snake do you make the wife kill in the darkness?

Appendix 2: Sepedi Distractor Sentences (with Target Phonemes in Bold). “A” stands for Answer, “Q” stands for Question.

A1::

Re fa lehodu le šoro seaparo se segolo lefastereng.

SM1PL give 5.thief AGR5 cruel 7.garment AGR7 7.big window

We give the cruel thief a big garment at the window.

Q1::

Re fa lehodu seaparo kae?

SM1PL give 5.thief 7.garment where

Where do we give the thief a garment?

A2::

Re nea lesea le lešweu lešela la setšo seferong.

SM1PL give 5.baby AGR5 light 5.cloth POSS7 7.tradition gate

We give the light-skinned baby the traditional cloth at the gate.

Q2::

Re nea lesea lešela kae?

SM1PL give 5.baby 5.cloth where

Where do we give the baby a cloth?

A3::

Re ješa namane ye sehla lehlare le monate mafulong.

SM1PL feed 9.calf AGR9 grey 5.leaf AGR5 tasty field

We feed the grey calf a tasty leaf on the grazing fields.

Q3::

Re ješa namane lehlare kae?

SM1PL feed 9.calf 5.leaf where

Where do we feed the calf a leaf?

A4::

O solela lesogana le legolo maiba a maswa dipoleiting.

SM3SG dish_up 5.man AGR5 5.big 6.pidgeon POSS6 6.young car

He dishes up young pigeons for the big young man at the car.

Q4::

O solela lesogana maiba afe?

SM3SG dish_up 5.man 6.pidgeon 6.which

Which pigeons does he dish up for the young man?

A5::

O kgela sera sa megabaru merogo ya Mma dinaweng.

SM3SG pick 7.enemy POSS7 7.greedy 4.vegetable POSS4 1.mother beans

She picks mother’s vegetables for the greedy enemy among the beans.

Q5::

O kgela sera merogo efe?

SM3SG pick 7.enemy 4.vegetable 4.which

Which vegetables does she pick for the enemy?

A6::

O bontšha lesole le lešele monna yo mogolo sephiring.

SM3SG show 5.soldier AGR5 5.foreign 1.man AGR1 1.big secret

She shows the foreign soldier the big man in secret.

Q6::

O bontšha lesole lefe monna?

SM3SG show 5.soldier 5.which 1.man

Which soldier does she show the man?

A7::

Re šupa semenemene sa lešilo segwaga sa setala.

SM1PL point_out 7.crook POSS7 stupid 7.frog POSS7 7.green

We point out the green frog to the stupid crook.

Q7::

Re šupa semenemene segwagwa sefe?

SM1PL point_out 7.crook 7.frog 7.which

Which frog do we point out to the crook?

A8::

O rea lesea le leswa leina la Seburu.

SM3SG give 5.baby AGR5 5.new 5.name POSS5 5.Afrikaans

He gives the new baby an Afrikaans name.

Q8::

O rea lesea leina lefe?

SM3SG give 5.baby 5.name 5.which

Which name does he give the baby?

A9::

O ngwalela moemedi wa legae sereto sa Seburu.

SM3SG write 1.representative POSS1 5.village 7.poem POSS7 7.Afrikaans

He writes the representative of the village an Afrikaans poem.

Q9::

O ngwalela moemedi ofe sereto?

SM3SG write 1.representative 1.which 7.poem

Which representative does he write a poem?

A10::

Masole a swarela semenemene se sešoro tšhelete ya dikoloi.

6.soldier SM6 arrest 7.deceiver AGR7 7.cruel 9.money POSS9 10.car

The soldiers arrest the cruel deceiver for the cars’ money.

Q10::

Masole a swarela semenemene sefe tšhelete?

6.soldier SM6 arrest 7.deceiver 7.which 9.money

Which crook do the soldiers arrest for money?

A11::

Re romela sehwirihwiri sa Leisimane molaetša wa sekolo.

SM1PL send 7.crook POSS7 7.English 3.message POSS3 7.school

We send the English crook the school’s message.

Q11::

Re romela sehwirihwiri sefe molaetša?

SM1PL send 7.crook 7.which 3.message

Which crook do we send the message?

A12::

Re kgela dipudi tšenne mahlare a magolo goseng.

SM1PL pluck 10.goat 10.four 6.leaf POSS6 6.big morning

We pluck big leaves for the four goats in the morning. 

Q12::

Re kga mahlare neng?

SM1PL pluck 6.leaf when

When do we pluck leaves?

A13::

O lemela mabele a lapa tema ye kgolo lenyaga.

SM3SG plough 6.corn POSS6 9.family 9.plot AGR9 9.big this_year

He ploughs a big plot for the family’s corn this year.

Q13::

O lema tema neng?

SM3SG plough 9.plot when

When does he plough the plot?

A14::

Re bakela lefase la rena muši wo montšhi naase.

SM1PL create 5.earth POSS5 our 3.smoke POSS3 3.plentiful today

We create a lot of smoke for our planet today.

Q14::

Re baka muši neng?

SM1PL create 3.smoke when

When do we create smoke?

A15::

O rea lefika la thaba leina le lefsa monyanyeng.

SM3SG give 5.stone POSS5 9.mountain 5.name AGR5 5.new party

She gives the mountain stone a new name at the party.

Q15::

O rea eng leina monyanyeng?

SM3SG give what 5.name party

What does she give a name at the party?

A16::

O namela sekepe se segolo mohla wa mathomo lehono.

SM3SG ascend 7.ship AGR7 7.big 3.time POSS3 first today

He ascends on a big ship for the first time today.

Q16::

O namela eng lehono?

SM3SG ascend what today

What does he ascend today?

A17::

Ba direla setopo sa Morongwa leswika le lefsa.

SM3PL erect 7.corpse POSS7 PROPNAME 5.stone AGR5 5.new

They erect a new tombstone for Morongwa’s corpse.

Q17::

Ba direla mang leswika?

SM3PL erect who 5.stone

For who do they erect a tombstone?

A18::

Re rekela lefielo pholitšhi ye serulwane mmileng.

SM1PL buy 5.broom 9.polish AGR9 yellow street

We buy yellow polish for the broomstick in the street.

Q18::

Re rekela eng pholitšhi mmileng?

SM1PL buy what 9.polish street

What do we buy polish for in the street?

A19::

Re lema lefoka tema ye nyenyana goseng.

SM1PL plough 5.thicket 9.plot AGR9 small morning

We plough a small piece in the thicket in the morning.

Q19::

Le rema eng tema goseng?

SM2PL plough what 9.plot morning

What do you (pl.) plough a piece in the morning?

A20::

Re romela Leboa lengwalo la tumišo posong.

SM1PL send 5.North 5.letter POSS5 9.praise post_office

We send the North a letter of praise at the post office.

Q20::

Le roma lengwalo lefe posong?

SM1PL send 5.letter 5.which post_office

Which letter do you (pl.) send at the post office?

A21::

Re ruta Leburu polelo ya Sezulu sekolong.

SM1PL teach 5.Afrikaans 9.language POSS9 7.Zulu school

We teach the Afrikaner the Zulu language at school.

Q21::

Re ruta eng sekolong?

SM1PL teach what school

What do we teach at school?

A22::

O agela lekarapa ntlo ya bogoši legaeng.

SM3SG build 5.young_man 9.house POSS9 14.king village

He builds a royal house for the working young man in the village.

Q22::

O aga eng legaeng?

SM3SG build what village

What does he build in the village?

A23::

Re lomiša moeng wa mmolayi noga ya mokoti.

SM1PL make_bite 1.visitor POSS1 1.murderer 9.snake POSS9 3.hole

We make the hole-inhibiting snake bite the visitor who is a murderer.

Q23::

Re lomiša moeng noga efe?

SM1PL make_bite 1.visitor 9.snake 9.which

Which snake do we make bite the visitor?

A24::

Re logela mokiti maano a polawo bošego.

SM1PL devise 4.party 6.plan POSS6 9.murder night

We devise murdering plans for the party at night.

Q24::

Re logela eng maano bošego?

SM1PL devise what 6.plan night

What do we devise plans for at night?

Appendix 3: Distribution of Missing Button Responses in Experiment 1 and 2

See Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1 Sepedi—for each target position, the number of missing responses (i.e. no button press) split by Prosodic context (Conducive vs. non-Conducive) as function of Semantic status (Focussed vs. Unfocussed) (Participants: N = 41- Responses: N = 984 (= 41 participants × 24 stimuli))
Full size table
Table 2 Black South African English—for each target position, the number of missing responses (i.e. no button press) split by Prosodic context (Conducive vs. non-Conducive) as function of Semantic status (Focussed vs. Unfocussed) (Participants: N = 39—Responses: N = 897 (= 39 participants × 23 stimuli))
Full size table

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Turco, G., Zerbian, S. Processing of Prosody and Semantics in Sepedi and L2 English. J Psycholinguist Res 50, 681–706 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-020-09746-z

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