Skip to main content
Log in

Dynamic Linguistic Interconnectedness and Variability in Toddlers

  • Published:
Journal of Psycholinguistic Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This investigation examined the existence of interconnectedness between developing linguistic subsystems. Spontaneous speech samples were collected from 31 typically-developing Greek-speaking toddlers across two age levels, at 28 and 36 months. Correlational analyses were performed synchronically and predictively, revealing significant positive relationships among all language skills within ages. Phonetic and grammatical skills also showed predictive value for later skills. In addition, a cluster analysis on the basis of performance on each individual skill revealed variable linguistic profiles: Low performers showed multiple interactions within and across ages, while High performers showed minimal such interactions. The current results revealed complex interdependencies among the different language skills with children exhibiting variable linguistic profiles, as supported by dynamic systems theory approaches to language acquisition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amayreh, M., & Dyson, A. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 41, 642–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2005). Guidelines for manual pure-tone threshold audiometry.

  • Aram, D. M., & Nation, J. E. (1980). Preschool language disorders and subsequent language and academic difficulties. Journal of Communication Disorders, 13(12), 159–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bates, E., Bretherton, I., & Snyder, L. (1988). From first words to grammar. Cambridge: MA Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates, E., & Goodman, J. C. (2001). On the inseparability of grammar and the lexicon: Evidence from acquisition.

  • Bayley, N. (1969). The Bayley scales of infant development. New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckman, M. E., Munson, B., & Edwards, J. (2007). The influence of vocabulary growth on developmental changes in types of phonological knowledge. In J. Cole & J. Hualde (Eds.), Laboratory phonology (Vol. 9, pp. 241–264). New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berko-Gleason, J., & Rattner, N. (2016). The development of language (9th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V., & Edmundson, A. (1987). Language-impaired 4-year-olds: Distinguishing transient from persistent impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 52(2), 156–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caselli, C., Casadio, P., & Bates, E. (1999). A comparison of the transition from first words to grammar in English and Italian. Journal of Child Language, 26(1), 69–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christophe, A., Guasti, T., Nespor, M., & Dupoux, E. (1997). Reflections of phonological bootstrapping: Its role for lexical and syntactic acquisition. Language and Cognitive Processing, 12(5/6), 585–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conti-Ramsden, G., & Jones, M. (1997). Verb use in specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 1298–1313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtin, S., & Zamuner, T. S. (2014). Understanding the developing sound system: Interactions between sounds and words. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 5(5), 589–602.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cyprus Statistical Service. (2005). Demographics report and population statistics. Nicosia: Nicosia Printing Office of the Republic of Cyprus.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2007). A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition. Bilingualism Language and Cognition, 10(1), 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728906002732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duff, F. J., Reen, G., Plunkett, K., & Nation, K. (2015). Do infant vocabulary skills predict school-age language and literacy outcomes? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(8), 848–856.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Dale, P., Reznik, S., Bates, E., Thal, D., & Pethick, S. (1994). Variability in early communicative development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(5), 1–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernald, A., Perfors, A., & Marchman, V. A. (2006). Picking up speed in understanding: Speech processing efficiency and vocabulary growth across the 2nd year. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 98–116.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Grohmann, K. (2011). Some directions for the systematic investigation of the acquisition of cypriot greek: A new perspective on production abilities from object clitic placement. In E. Rinke & T. Kupisch (Eds.), The development of grammar: Language acquisition and diachronic change (11th ed., pp. 179–203). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff, E. (2005). Language development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2014). The interface between spoken and written language: Developmental disorders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 369, 20120395. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J. (1971). Change and continuity in infancy. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kambanaros, M., Grohmann, K. K., & Michaelides, M. (2013). Lexical retrieval for nouns and verbs in typically developing bilectal children. First Language, 33(2), 182–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, L. B. (2014). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade twelve. Chicago: National Council of Teachers of English.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, J. (1993). The child’s path to spoken language. New York, NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacQueen, J. (1967). Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations. In Proceedings of the fifth Berkeley symposium on mathematical statistics and probability (Vol. 1, pp. 281–297). University of California Press.

  • Marchman, V. A., & Bates, E. (1994). Continuity in lexical and morphological development: A test of the critical mass hypothesis. Journal of Child Language, 21, 339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marchman, V., & Fernald, A. (2008). Speed of word recognition and vocabulary knowledge in infancy predict cognitive and language outcomes in later childhood. Developmental Science, 11(3), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00671.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marchman, V., & Thal, D. (2005). Words and Grammar. In M. Tomasello & D. Slobin (Eds.), Beyond nature-nurture: Essays in honor of Elizabeth Bates (pp. 141–164). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marton, K., Schwartz, R., Farkas, L., & Katsnelson, V. (2006). Effects of sentence length and complexity on working memory performance in Hungarian children with specific language impairment: a cross-linguistic comparison. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 41(6), 653–673.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor, K., Sheng, L., & Smith, B. (2005). The precosious two-year old: Staus of the lexicon and likks to the grammar. Journal of Child Language, 32, 564–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metsala, J. L., & Walley, A. C. (1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representations: Precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 89–120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirak, J., & Rescorla, L. (1989). Phonetic skills and vocabulary size in late talkers: Concurrent and predictive relationships. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, L., & Wren, Y. E. (2018). A systematic review of the literature on early vocalizations and babbling patterns in young children. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 40(1), 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moyle, M. J., Weismer, S. E., Evans, J. L., & Lindstrom, M. J. (2007). Longitudinal relationships between lexical and grammatical development in typical and late-talking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(2), 508–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 665–681. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.665.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okalidou, A., Petinou, K., Theodorou, E., & Karasimou, E. (2010). Development of voice onset time in standard-Greek and Cypriot-Greek-speaking preschoolers. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 24(7), 503–519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olswang, L., Long, S., & Fletcher, P. (1997). Verbs in the emergence of word combinations in young children with specific expressive language impairment. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32, 15–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olswang, L., Stoel-Gammon, C., Coggins, T., & Carpenter, R. (1987). Assessing prelinguistic and early linguistic behaviors in developmentally young children. Assessing Linguistic Behavior (ALB).

  • Paul, R., & Alforde, S. (1993). Grammatical morpheme acquisition in 4-year-olds with normal, impaired, and late-developing language. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 36, 1271–1275. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.3606.1271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R., & Jennings, P. (1992). Phonological behavior in toddlers with slow expressive language development. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 35(1), 99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., Constantinou, A., & Kapsou, M. (2011). Language skills in Cypriot-Greek speaking toddlers with specific language delay. Journal of Greek Linguistics, 11, 56–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., & Okalidou, A. (2006). Speech patterns in Cypriot-Greek late talkers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27(03), 335–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., Schwartz, R. G., Mody, M., & Gravel, J. (1999). Early phonological characteristics in young children with and without histories of otitis media: A longitudinal prospective investigation. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 12(6), 144–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., & Spanoudis, G. (2014). Early language delay phenotypes and correlation with later linguistic abilities. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 66(1–2), 67–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., & Terzi, A. (2002). Clitic misplacement among normally developing children and children with specific language impairment and the status of Infl heads. Language Acquisition, 10(1), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petinou, K., & Theodorou, E. (2015). Early phonetic development in typically developing children: A longitudinal investigation from Cypriot-Greek child data. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, November, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2015.1095244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (1989). The language development surveya screening tool for delayed language in toddlers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54(4), 587–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L. (2011). Late talkers: Do good predictors of outcome exist? Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 17(2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.1108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rescorla, L., & Ratner, N. B. (1996). Phonetic profiles of toddlers with specific expressive language impairment (SLI-E). Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 153–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal-Rollins, P., Snow, C. E., & Willet, J. B. (1996). Predictors of MLU: Semantic and morphological developments. First Language, 16(47), 243–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson, L. K., & Galligan, M. (2014). Dynamic systems theory and language development. In P. J. Brooks & V. Kempe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuelle, C. M. (2004). The impact of developmental speech and language impairments on the acquisition of literacy skills. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10(3), 176–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sosa, A. V., Golombek, A., & St. Martin, H. (2018). Predicting short -term speech sound normalization in English speaking preschoolers using lexical-phonological profiling. Paper presented at the international child phonology conference (ICPC), Chani, Crete, Greece, June 18–20.

  • Sosa, A. V., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (2006). Patterns of intra-word phonological variability during the second year of life. Journal of Child Language, 33, 31–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephany, U. (1997). The acquisition of Greek. In D. I. Slobin (Ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (pp. 183–333). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoel-Gammon, C. (2011). Relationships between lexical and phonological development in young children. Journal of Child Language, 38(1), 1–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and disordered phonology in children. Pro Ed.

  • Stoel-Gammon, C., & Sosa, A. V. (2007). Phonological development. In E. Hoff & M. Schatz (Eds.), Handbook of language development (pp. 238–256). Oxford: Oxford Publishing Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taxitari, L., Floros, G., Kambanaros, M., & Grohmann, K. K. G. (2017). Early language development in a bilectal context: The Cypriot adaptation of the MacArthur-Bates CDI. In E. Babatsouli, D. Ingram, & N. Mueller (Eds.), Where typical and atypical language acquisition meet crosslinguistically. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thordardottir, E. T. (1998). Mean length of utterance and other language sample measures in early Icelandic. First Language, 18(52), 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsimpli, I. M., Kambanaros, M., & Grohmann, K. (2016). Language pathology. In I. G. Roberts (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of universal grammar. Oxford: Oxford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ushioda, E. (2015). Context and complex dynamic systems theory. In Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 47–54).

  • Vihman, M. M. (1992). Early syllables and the construction of phonology. Phonological Development: Models, Research, Implications, 393–422.

  • Vihman, M. M. (1996). Phonological development: The origins of language in the child. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vihman, M. (2013). Phonological development: The first two years (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vihman, M. M., Velleman, S. L., & McCune, L. (1994). How abstract is child phonology? Towards an integration of linguistic and psychological approaches. First and Second Language Phonology, 9–44.

  • Voniati, L. (2016). Mean length of utterance in cypriot Greek-speaking children. Journal of Greek Linguistics, 16(1), 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (1992). PLS-3: Preschool language scale-3. New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kakia Petinou.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Petinou, K., Taxitari, L., Phinikettos, I. et al. Dynamic Linguistic Interconnectedness and Variability in Toddlers. J Psycholinguist Res 50, 797–814 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-020-09747-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-020-09747-y

Keywords

Navigation